
Class. 
Book 



AN ABRIDGED 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND 



USE OF SCHOOLS; 



TO WHICH IS ADDED 



AN ABSTRACT OF THE CONSTITUTION; 



A GEOGRAPHICAL TREATISE, 



ACCORDING TO THE ROMAN, SAXON, AND MODERN DIVISIONS. 



TO THE ESO. OF THE BEIGN OP GEORGE IV. 



By W. F. MYLIUS. 



BALTIMORE; 

PUBLISHED BY FIELDING LUCAS, Jb. 
No, 138 MARKET STREET, * 



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GEOGRAPHY 



GREAT BRITAIN. 



Great Britain, the largest of all the European isles, 
ids from the Lizaid' s Point, latitude 50° north, to Duns- 
bay Head, 58° 40' north, about six hundred miles, and from 
Dover Head east to Land's End west, about three hundred 
miles. 

Ancient Geography. 

Great Britain was divided by the Romans into, 1. Britannia 
Romana ; and % Britannia Barbara. 

Britannia Romana was subdivided into Britannia Prima, 
Secunda, Valentia, Maxima Csesariensis, and Flavia Csesari- 
ensis, the limits of which are not known. Britannia Bar- 
bara, or Caledonia, was never subdued by the Romans, 
who penetrated no further than the Montes Grampii. It 
was inhabited by the Caledonians and Picts, and at a later 
time by the Scoti or Scots, who were supposed by some 
to have been of Irish origin. 

At the invasion by the Romans, England including Wales 
was divided into seventeen petty states, called by them: 

1. Dunmonii or Danmonii, inhabiting Cornwall and Dev- 
onshire. 

2. Durotrfges — Dorsetshire. 

3. Belgae — Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and the greater part 
of Hampshire. 

4. Attrebati — Berkshire. 

5. Regni — Surrey, Sussex, and the remaining part of 
Hampshire. 

6. Cantii — Kent. 

7. Dobuni, placed by Ptolemy on the north side of the 
Thames, near its source in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire. 

8. Catteuchlani or Cathicludani — Bucks. Bedfordshire, and 
Hertfordshire. 



IV GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

9. Trinobantes — Essex and Middlesex. 

10. Iceni, Simeni, Tigeni — Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, 
and Huntingdon. 

11. Coritani — Northampton, Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, 
Nottingham, and Derbyshire. 

12. Cornavii — Warwick, Worcester, Stafford, Shropshire, 
and Cheshire. 

13. Silures — Radnor, Brecon, Glamorgan, Monmouth, and 
Hereford. 

14. Demetx — Pembroke, Cardigan, and Carmarthen. 

15. Ordovices — Montgomery, Merioneth, Carnarvon, Flint, 
and Denbigh. 

16. Brigantes — York, Durham, Lancashire, Westmoreland, 
and Cumberland. 

17. Ottadeni — Northumberland to the Tweed, or accord i 
to some to the Tyne. 

Principal Rivers. 

Tamesis,' the Thames. Sabrina, the Severn. Abus. the 
Humber, composed of the Ouse, Trent, and other branches. 
Tina, the Tyne. Vedra, the Were. Ituna, the Eden. Tuasis 
or Tuesis, the Tweed. Bodotria, the Forth. Glota, the 
Clyde. Taus, the Tay. Devana, the Dee. 

Principal Towns. 

Londinum — London ; Camelodunum, Maiden, or Colches- 
ter, in Essex ; Rutupice, Richborough, and Portus Dubris ; 
Dovor, in Kent. 

Lemanis — Lyme, near which Caesar is supposed by some 
to have landed. 

Durovernum — Canterbury, in Kent. 

Durobrivis — Rochester, in Kent. 

Venta Belgarum — Winchester, in Hants. 

Durnium or Durnovaiia — Dorchester, in Dorsetshire. 

Tsca — Exeter, in Devonshire. 

Verulamium or Verulam — near St. Alban's, in Hertford- 
shire. 

Aquse Solis, or Calidse — Bath, Somersetshire. 

Clanum, Gloucester — Deva, Chester. 

Lindum Colonia, Lincoln — -Eboracum, York; Luguvallum, 
Carlisle. 
'; Alata Castra or Edinodunum— Edinburgh. 



GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. T" 

Islands. 

The chief islands round Britain as denominated by the 
Romans are : Vectis — Isle of Wight. 

Cassiterides — supposed to be the Scilly Islands. 

Mona — Anglesea* 

Moneedea or Mona — Isle of Man. 

Ebudae or Hebrides — the Scotch Western Isles. 

Orcades — the Orkneys. 

Ultima Thule — supposed to be the Shetland Isles. 

Modern Gc -graphy of Great Britain. 

The island of Great Britain contains England, Scotland, 
and Wales. 

Since the Norman Conquest, England has been divided 
into six circuits, each containing a certain number of coun- 
ties, which are subdivided into Wapentakes, or hundreds and 
parishes. These circuits and counties are as follow : 

1. The Home Circuit, containing the following counties : 
Essex. — Chief Towns : Chelmsford, Colchester, Harwich, 

Maiden, Coggeshall, Witham, Brentwood. 

Hertford or Herts. — Hertford, Royston, Hitchen, Ware, 
St. Alban's, Stevenage. 

Kent. — Maidstone, Canterbury, Dovor, Deal, Rochester, 
Chatham, Tonbridge, Margate, Gravesend, Woolwich, Green- 
wich. 

Surrey. — Kingston, Croydon, Guildford, Farnham. 

Sussex. — Chichester, Lewes, Horsham, Brighton, Hast- 
ings, Arundel. 

2. The Norfolk Circuit, containing the following counties : 
Buckingham or Bucks. — Chief Towns: Buckingham, 

Aylesbury, Newport Pagnell, Eton, Wycombe. 

Bedford or Beds. — Bedford, Woburn, Dunstable. 

Huntingdon. — Huntingdon, St. Ive's, St. Neot's, Kim- 
bolton. 

Cambridge. — Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Wisbeacb... 

Suffolk. — Ipswich, Lowestoft, Bury St. Edmund's. 

Norfolk. — Norwich, Yarmouth, Lynn, Thetford. 

3. The Oxford Circuit, containing the following counties : 
Oxford or Oxon. — Chief Towns : Oxford, Witney, Wood- 
stock, Banbury, Henley on Thames. 

Berkshire or Berks. — Reading, Newbury, Windsor, 
Abingdon. 

1* 



Vi GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Gloucester. — Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Stroud, Chelten- 
ham, Cirencester, and part of Bristol, a county in itself. 

Worcester.— Worcester, Dudley, Stourbridge, Kidder- 
minster, Evesham. 

Monmouth. — Monmouth, Chepstow, Abergavenny. 

Herefordshire. — Hereford, Ross, Leominster, Ledbury. 

Shropshire. — Shrewsbury, Bridgenorth, Oswestry, New- 
port, Ellesmere, and Ludlow. 

Staffordshire. — Stafford, Lichfield, Burton, Newcastle- 
under-line, Wolverhampton. 

4. The Midland Circuit, containing the following counties : 
Warwick.-— Warwick, Coventry, Birmingham, Leaming- 
ton, Stratford. 

Leicester. — Leicester, Hinckley, Loughborough, Lut- 
terworth, Melton Mowbray, Harborough. 

Derby. — Derby, Chesterfield, Buxton, Matlock, Ashborn. 

Nottingham or Notts. — Nottingham, Mansfield, New- 
ark, Worksop. 

Lincoln. — Lincoln, Boston, Gainsborough, Stamford, Louth. 

Rutland. — Oakham, Uppingham. 

Northampton. — Northampton. Daventry, Peterborough. 

5. Western Circuit, containing the following counties : 
Hampshire or Hants. — Chief Towns: Winchester, 

Portsmouth, Portsea, Gosport, Southampton, Lymington, 
Basingstoke, Ringwood, and Newport, Ryde, and Cowes, in 
the Isle of Wight. 

Wiltshire. — Salisbury, Wilton, Devizes, Bradford, Trow- 
bridge, Marlborough. 

Dorsetshire. — Dorchester, Poole, Weymouth, Lyme 
Regis, Blandford, Shaftesbury. 

Somersetshire. — Bath, Bristol in part, Wells, Frome, 
Taunton, Bridgewater. 

Devonshire. — Exeter, Plymouth, Devonport, Sidmouth, 
Teignmouth, Dartmouth, Barnstable. 

Cornwall. — Launceston, St. Ive's, Penzance, Falmouth. 
Truro, Penryn. 

6. Northern Circuit, containing the following counties : 
Yorkshire. — Chief Towns: York, Leeds, Hull, Shef- 
field, Whitby, Scarborough, Rippon, Halifax, Bradford, Wake- 
field, Huddersfield, Pontefract, Harrowgate. 

Durham. — Durham, Bishops-Auckland, South Shields, 

\ Sunderland, Hartlepool, Stockton, Darlington. 
Northumberland.— Newcastle, Morpeth. Alnwick, North 
Shields, Hexham* 



GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. vii 

Cumberland. — Carlisle, Whitehaven, Workington, Cock- 
ermouth, Penrith. 

Westmoreland. — Appleby, Kendal. 

Lancashire. — Lancaster, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, 
Wigan, Bolton, Rochdale, Warrington, Prescot, Blackburn. 

Cheshire has its own jurisdiction, and forms a county 
palatine, containing Chester, Cholmondeley, Namptwich, 
Middlewich, Northwich. 

Middlesex has also its own jurisdiction. — Chief Towns : 
London, Westminster, and Brentford. 

Besides these forty counties, there are others to which the 
liberties and jurisdiction of counties have been granted by 
royal charter, as the cities of London, York, Chester, Bris- 
tol, Norwick, Worcester, the town of Newcastle upon Tyne, 
Kingston upon Hull, and Berwick upon Tweed, with a terri- 
tory of about two miles on the north side of the river, which 
although it lies in Scotland, is considered in law as distinct 
from both kingdoms. 

Rivers. 

3 Avon, viz. one in Wiltshire, one in Gloucestershire, and 
one in Leicestershire. 

1 Cam, in Cambridgeshire. 

3 Derwent, 1 in Derby, 1 in Durham, and 1 in Cumberland. 
1 Eden, in Cumberland. 

1 Exe, in Somersetshire. 
,1 Frome, in ditto. 
1 Hull, in Yorkshire. 

1 Humber, between York and Lincolnshire.. 
1 Kennet, in Wilts. 
1 Lea, in Hertfordshire. 
1 New River, in ditto, 
1 Lon, in Lancashire. 
1 Medway, in Kent. 
1 Mersey, in Cheshire. 

4 Ouse ; one in Sussex, one in Northamptonshire, one irt 
Norfolk, and one in Yorkshire. 

1 Ribble, Lancashire. 

1 Severn, Bristol. 

3 Stour, one in Dorsetshire, one in Kent, and one in Essex* 

1 Tamar, Devonshire. 

1 Tees, Cumberland. 

1 Thames, Oxford and Middlesex. 

1 Trent, Nottinghamshire. 

1 Tweed, Berwick. 

1 Witham, Lincolnshire. 



Viii GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Principal Lakes. 
Windermere, in Westmoreland. 
Ullswater, in ditto. 
Coniston, in Lancashire. 

Principal Mountains. 
Cheviot, between England and Scotland,. 
Endle, Lancashire. 
Fells, Cumberland and Yorkshire. 
Malvern, Worcestershire. 
Mendip, Somersetshire. 
Peak, Derbyshire. 
Wrekin, Shropshire.. 

Islands. 
Thanet and Sheppey, on the Kentish coast. 
Wight, on the Hampshire ditto. 
Man, Irish Sea. 
Scilly Isles, off Cornwall. 
Holy, Farn, and Coquet, Northumberland. 





WALES 


is bounded on 


the east by Cheshire, Shropshire, and Here- 


ford ; on the south by Monmouthshire and the British Chan- 


nel ; on the west by St. George's Channel, and on the north by 


the Irish Sea.- 


—It contains twelve counties, viz. six northern 


and six southern. 




The Northern are : 


Counties. 


Chief Towns. 


Flint, 


Flint. 


Denbigh, 


Denbigh. 


Caernarvon, 


Caernarvon. 


Anglesea, 


Beaumaris. 


Merioneth, 


Harlech. 


Montgomery, 


Montgomery. 




The Southern are : 


Cardigan, 


Cardigan 


Radnor, 


Radnor. 


Pembroke, 


Pembroke . 


Caermarthen. 


Caermarthen.. 


Brecknock, 


Brecknock. 


Glamorgan, 


Cardiff 



V SCOTLAND. 

\ Scotland is divided into thirty-three counties, and is bound- 
ed on the south by England, on the north-east and west by 
the Deucladonian, German and Irish Seas. 



GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



IX 





The Northern are ten, viz. 


Counties. 


Chief Towns. 


Orkney, 


Kirkwall. 


Caithness, 


Wick. 


Sutherland, 


Strathy, Darnock. 


Ross, 


Ross, Tarne. 


Cromartie, 


Cromartie. 


Nairne, 


Nairne. 


Murray or Elgin, Elgin. 


Bamff, 


Bamff. 


Aberdeen, 


Aberdeen. 


Inverness, 


Inverness. 




The Middle counties are nine : 


Perth, 


Perth. 


Angus, 


Forfar, Montrose. 


Kincardine, 


Bervie. 


Argyle, 


Inverary. 


Dunbarton, 


Dunbarton. 


Stirling, 


Stirling. 


Clackmannan, 


Clackmannan. 


Kinross. 


Kinross.. 


Fife, 


Fife. 




Fourteen Southern : 


Bute, 


Rothsay. 


Renfrew, 


Renfrew, Greenock. 


Lanark, 


Glasgow, Lanark. 


Linlithgow, 


Linlithgow. 


Edinburgh, 


Edinburgh* 


Haddington, 


Haddington, Dunbar. 


Peebles, 


Peebles. 


Berwick, 


Dunse, Berwick* 


Ayr, 


Ayr. 


Wigtown, 


Wigtown. 


Kirkudbright, 


Kirkudbright. 


Dumfries, 


Dumfries. 


Selkirk, 


Selkirk. 


Roxburgh, 


Roxburgh. 


Edinburgh, 


Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are 


celebrated seats of Teaming. 


Glasgow is much noted for its great commerce. 




Islands. 


The islands 


are very numerous. The principal are, the 


Eubudae: Hebrides, or Western isles; the Orkney, the Shet- 


land, or Zetland ides ; the isles of Skye, Arran, Bute, Kilda, 


and Mull. 





x GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Lakes. 
Broom, Carron, Leven, Lomond, Ness, and Tay. 

Rivers. 
Tweed, Forth, Clyde, Tay, Spey, Dee, Don, Esk, Annan, 
and Nith. 

Mountains. 
The Grampian, East to West. 

The Pentland, Lothian. 

Lammermuir, Merse. 

The highest are Lomond and Nevis. 



IRELAND 

Is situated between 5° and 10° west longitude, and 51° 
and 56° north latitude, extending in length about 300 miles, 
and in breadth 150 miles. 

It is divided into four provinces, viz. Ulster, north ; Lein- 
ster, east; Munster, south; and Connaught, west; and con- 
tains about eight millions of inhabitants. 

Ulster contains nine counties, viz. 

Counties. Chief Towns. 

Antrim, Carrickfergus. 

Armagh, Armagh. 

Cavan, Cavan. 

Down, Downpatrick. 

Donegal, LirTord. 

Fermanagh, Enniskillen. 

Londonderry, Deny. 

Monaghan, Monaghan. 

Tyrone, Omagh. 

Leinster contains twelve counties, viz. 



Carlow, 


Carlow. 


Dublin, 


Dublin. 


Kildare, 


Naas and A thy. 


Kilkenny, 


Kilkenny. 


King's County 


Philipstown. 


Longford, 


Longford. 


Lowth, 


Drogheda. 


East Mealh, 


Trim. 


Queen's County, 


Maryborough. 


Westmeath, 


Mullingar. 


Wexford, 


Wexford. 


Wicklow 


Wicklow. 



BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 





Munster contains six counties : 


Counties. 


Chief Towns. 


Clare, 


Ennis. 


Cork, 


Cork. 


Kerry, 


Tralee. 


Limerick, 


Limerick. 


Tipperary, 


Clonmel. 


Waterford, 


Waterford. 




Connaught contains five counties 


Galway, 


Galway. 


Leitrim, 


Leitrim. 


Mayo, 


Newport. 


Roscommon. 


, Roscommon. 


Sligo, 


SJigo. 



Dublin is the chief city, and has a university 
Principal Rivers. 
The Shannon, Foyle, Barm, LifFey, Boyne, Slaney, Suir, 
Barrow, Erne, May, Noir, Sark, and Gyll. 
Lakes. 
Neagh, Lean, Erine, Cori, and Killarney. 

Mountains. 
Knock Patrick, Sliew, Bloomy, and Curlieu. 



BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 

The British Constitution is a limited monarchy, consisting 
of the united powers of King, Lords, and Commons. It 
originated among the Anglo-Saxons, and was brought to a 
considerable degree of perfection under Alfred the Great. 
It was afterwards greatly infringed upon by William the 
Conqueror, and some of his successors ; but was restored 
by the Magna Charta signed by King John. 

The executive power is vested in the King and his Minis- 
ters, Judges, and Juries. 

The legislative authority is in the two Houses of Parliament. 

The throne is hereditary, and may be occupied by a female 
with the title of Queen, if nearest in lineal descent. 

The King possesses the sole power of declaring war or 
making peace, of assembling or dissolving Parliament, of 
bestowing titles of honour, of giving or withholding his 
assent to proposed laws. He is the supreme head of the 
church as established by law, and supreme judge in every 
court of law ; but he is equally bound to pay obedience to 
the law r s as is the meanest of his subjects. His Ministers 
are responsible for every act done in his name. He caa 



x ii BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 

pardon any criminal ; but neither he nor his judges can con- 
demn any one till he is 'found guilty by a jury of twelve 
men the equals of the criminal. 

The judges have their salaries for life, and are not remov- 
able at the pleasure of the King. 

The King is not allowed to marry a subject. 

The eldest son of the King is styled Prince of Wales and 
Duke of Cornwall. 

The eldest daughter is styled Princess Royal. 

The Peers or Lords are privileged from arrest except for 
treason, felony, or other high crimes. The sheriff cannot 
search their houses except by warrant from the King signed 
by six privy councillors. They can sit on any bench of 
judicature, and are exempt from all offices of service. 

The House of Lords consists of the Lords of the realm, spirit- 
ual, comprising the two Archbishops and twenty-four Bishops ; 
of the temporal Peers, comprising the Peers of the Blood Royal, 
the whole of the hereditary English nobility bearing the titles 
of Dukes, Marquesses, Earls, Viscounts, and Barons ; also 
of ten Scotch Peers, and twenty-eight Irish Peers. 

The House of Commons consists of Representatives sent 
from counties, cities, and boroughs, elected by the people. 

They have the power to examine into the conduct of any 
Peer, and to impeach any minister of the King. They can 
call the judges to account. They have the sole right of 
originating bills for granting supplies of money for the ser- 
vice of Government, and of enquiring into any national 
grievance. It consists of 653 members, viz. eighty for the 
forty counties of England, fifty for the cities, 3-39 for the 
boroughs, two for each university, sixteen for the Cinque 
Ports, twenty for Wales, forty-five for Scotland, and 101) for 
Ireland. The counties are represented by knights of the shire, 
who must possess an estate in freehold or copyhold of £5\)\) per 
annum, and must be elected by persons possessing freehold 
land situate within the county of forty shillings per annum. 

The cities are represented by citizens possessing a clear 
estate of £i'M) per annum. 

The boroughs are represented by burgesses possessed of 
the same amount.* 

* By the Bill called the Reform Bill, passed in isri. in the reisjn of 

his present M ijesty William IV., many of the above articles are altered ; 
m my boroughs ceas? to Bend members; son? only s.;nd ot>; many 
vns formerly unrepresented now send members; the time of 
the elections is shortened ; ani a great mass of the people iu.\\: at 
the privilege of electors. 



AN 



ABRIDGED 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



BOOK I. 



Sovereigns of Britain from the 
introduction 

Ante Christum 
(Before Christ.) 

Cassibelanus S3 

Theomantius 50 

Cymbeline 24 

Anno Domini 
(In the year of our Lord.) 

Guiderius 45 

Arviragus 73 

Marius 125 

Coilus 179 

Lucius 207 

Severus (Emperor) 211 

Bassianus 218 



invasion of Julius Casar to the 
of the Saxons. 

Anno Domini 
(In the year of our Lord.) 

Carausius 225 

Alectus 232 

Asclepiodorus 26% 

Coilus II 289 

Constantius (Emperor) .... 310 

Constantine (Emperor) .... 329 

Octavius 383 

Maxiraianus 391 

Gratian 431 

Constantine 446 

Constantius 448 

Vortigern 450 



CHAPTER I. 

Origin and Military History of the Britons. 

The learning and ingenuity of the historian have been 
frequently exercised, in attempts to ascertain the name and 
origin of the Britons. Researches, however, which regard 
the aborigines of a country, must generally end in unsatis- 
factory conclusions and mere conjecture. One of the most 
probable opinions is, that the inhabitants originally came 
from Gaul, and derived their name from a Celtic word, 
signifying separation, an idea natural enough to the natives 
of the continent when speaking of our island. Virgil, in his 
first eclogue, calls our ancestors, "Et penitus toto divisos 

2 



14 ORIGIN AND MILITARY 

orbe Britannos:" "The Britons quite separated from the 
whole world." 

The Britons, a fierce and warlike nation, had frequent 
encounters among themselves ; and as Tacitus justly observes, 
" Nothing contributed so much to the advantage gained over 
them by the Romans, as their want of union and concert for 
their common interest." In their battles they used chariots, 
with short scythes fastened to each end of the axletrees ; 
which inflicted dreadful wounds, and caused great terror in 
the ranks of the enemy. So expert were they in the man- 
agement of these chariots, that they could stop their horses 
on the side of a steep hill when at full speed, turn them 
short round, run along upon the beam, rest upon the yoke, 
and in an instant recover their seats. Their arms were small 
shields, short daggers and spears ; helmets and breastplates 
they considered an incumbrance. They could endure 
hunger, cold, and all kinds of fatigue, with admirable 
patience ; and continue for several days together in bogs, 
and live in woods upon the bark and roots of trees. 

The Britons had long remained in this rude but inde- 
pendent state, when Csesar, having overrun Gaul, and being 
ambitious to extend his fame beyond that of all his prede- 
cessors, determined upon the conquest of a country that 
seemed to promise an easy triumph. The natives, informed 
of his intention, and sensible of the unequal contest, endea- 
voured to avert it by offers of submission. He received 
their ambassador with a treacherous complacency, and at 
the same time that he exhorted them to continue steadfast 
in their peaceful sentiments, made preparations for the 
execution of his design. His forces consisted of two legions, 
embarked in eighty transports ; and eighteen more were 
appointed to convey the cavalry. He set sail about mid- 
night, and the next morning arrived on the coast near Dover, 
where he beheld the rocks and cliffs covered with armed 
men to oppose his landing. What chiefly embarrassed the 
Romans in their attempt to disembark was the size of their 
ships, which required great depth of water ; Caesar, per- 
ceiving this disadvantage, ordered the large vessels to retire, 
and his galleys to advance their broadsides towards the shore, 
with directions to let fly their arrows and slings. The Bri- 
tons, surprised at the galleys, a sort of shipping they had 
never seen before, began to retire. Still, however, they 
kept up the fight with great courage and fury, till Csesar, 
observing the slaughter of his troops, caused several of his 



HISTORY OF THE BRITONS. 15 

boats to be manned, and sent them to the assistance of 
those who were most exposed. After a brave and obstinate 
defence, the naked and ill-armed Britons were obliged to 
submit to the superior discipline of the Romans, and sue for 
peace. Giesar, whose ships had been much damaged by a 
storm, very gladly granted their request on condition of 
receiving a certain number of hostages ; after which he set 
sail for Gaul to repair his shattered fleet. The Britons, 
informed of his departure, broke their treaty, and fell suddenly 
upon the seventh legion, which after a bloody battle defeated 
them, and once more obliged them to sue for peace. Csesar, 
in the mean time, having collected six hundred ships and 
twenty-eight galleys, again arrived off the coast. The Britons 
had made the best use of the respite : they were this time 
headed by Cassibelanus, king of the Trinobantes. He did 
not oppose the landing of the troops, but attacked them with 
his chariots and cavalry on their march ; they were, however, 
repulsed with loss, and driven into the woods, where the 
Romans pursuing them too eagerly, lost many of their men. 
This encouraged the Britons to make another fierce attack, 
in which they were again unsuccessful, and obliged to retreat. 
Ca?sar pursuing his victory, marched towards the country 
af the Trinobantes. On his arrival on the banks of the river 
Thames, he found it fordable only at one place ; the forces 
of Cassibelanus were drawn up on the opposite bank, which 
he had strongly fortified with large oaken staves driven 
into the bed of the river, some of which are still visible at 
Walton in Surrey. The Roman soldiers, however, advanced 
with such resolution, that the Britons, quite dispirited, aban- 
doned the banks and fled. By Polyxenus the panic of the 
Britons is attributed to the appearance of an elephant in front 
of the Romans. At the sight of so enormous an animal, to 
them unknown, the Britons abandoned the banks, and fled 
into the woods. Coesar crossing the river, marched to Veru- 
lam, the capital of Cassibelanus, which was soon taken. 
Cassibelanus, with courage unsubdued, although abandoned 
by the Trinobantes and several other tribes, as a last 
resource 1 , drew into a confederacy four kings, chiefs of 
the Cantii, and proceeded to attack the camp which guarded 
the ships ; but the Romans in a sally repulsed them with 
so great a slaughter, that Cassibelanus, seeing it in vain to 
contend any longer, concluded a peace with the Romans, 
stipulating to pay them an annual tribute, and delivering 
hostages tor the faithful performance of the treaty. Caesai: 



1G ORIGIN AND MILITARY 

then set sail with his whole fleet from Britain, to which 
place he never returned. 

Such is the account given by Caesar of his two expedi- 
tions into Britain ; but Dio Cassius tells us that the Britons 
entirely defeated the Roman infantry, though they were at 
last put into disorder by the cavalry. Horace and Tibul- 
lus speak of the Britons in many parts of their works, as of 
a people yet unconquered. Tacitus says, that Caesar rather 
shewed the Romans the way to Britain than put them in 
possession of it; and Lucan plainly tells us, that Caesar turned 
his back to the Britons and fled. This, however, considering 
the discipline and valour of his troops, is not very propable ; 
that Cresar left Britain during the winter is certain, but it 
was rather to quell the insurrection of the Gauls ; and cer- 
tainly his ambition was more likely to be gratified by 
becoming emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain. 

The departure of Caesar, which happened about fifty-three 
years before the birth of Christ, left the Britons without 
fear of a foreign enemy. Augustus formed twice the design 
of invading Britain, and forcing the pa} r ment of the tribute 
promised to Julius Caesar, which, probably, had not for 
many years been even demanded. Both times, however, he 
was prevented by revolts in different provinces, and it was 
not till the reign of Claudius that the Romans in good earnest 
set about reducing them under subjection. An army under 
Plautius. was ordered to Britain ; the soldiers at first refused 
to embark, from a notion that they were going beyond the 
compass of the world, and this mutiny being reported to the 
Britons, made them neglect their means of defence. Plau- 
tius, therefore, landed his men without opposition ; the Bri- 
tons, on their approach, retiring to the woods and marshes, 
whither the Romans following them, engaged first Carac- 
tacus, then Togodumnes, and defeated them both. The 
Britons, no way discouraged, continued the most determined 
resistance, and so weakened the army of Plautius by many 
bloody battles, that he did not think proper to pursue them 
any farther at that time, but putting garrisons into the con- 
quered places, wrote to Claudius for supplies, who himself 
came over and joined Plautius on the banks of the Thames. 
The Romans, emboldened by the presence of the Emperor, 
crossed the river and totally defeated the Britons. The 
successes of Plautius were thought so important, that on his 
return to Rome he was met without the gates by the Empe- 
ror, who at his solemn entry gave him the right hand. 



HISTORY OF THE BRITONS. 17 

Vespasian now succeeded to the command, and fought 
no fewer than thirty battles against the Britons. Caractacus, 
on the other hand, king of the Silures, the greatest general 
among the Britons, still endeavoured by the most vigorous 
efforts to rescue his country, and repel its insulting and 
rapacious invaders. With undisciplined forces, inferior in 
number, he continued during nine years to oppose and harass 
the Romans. By his conduct and policy he removed the 
seat of war to the territories of the Odovices, a country full 
of high mountains and craggy rocks, where he strongly 
entrenched his army, determined to await the attack of the 
Romans. At their approach he harangued his soldiers, 
declaring that from that day and that battle they must date 
their liberty rescued, or their slavery for ever established. 
He then invoked the shades of those heroes who had 
expelled Julius Ccesar : those brave men, by whom they still 
enjoyed their homes and families unpolluted, and freedom 
from tribute and taxes. The whole army, animated to the 
highest pitch, took a solemn oath to conquer or die, and pre- 
pared for the charge with terrible shouts. But what could 
undisciplined bravery do against an army skilled in all the 
arts of war, and emboldened by the conquest of the world ! 
The Britons, after a bloody battle, were totally routed, and 
Caractacus, who had fled for refuge to Cartismonda, queen of 
the Brigantes, was basely delivered to the enemy. The 
capture of this general was received with such joy at Rome, 
that he was ordered to be sent thither, and exhibited as a 
spectacle to the Romans. 

Caractacus, while passing through Rome, casting his eyes 
upon the splendour that surrounded him, could not help 
exclaiming, " How is it possible that a people possessed of 
such magnificence at home, should envy me a humble cot- 
tage in Britain !" He bore his misfortune with undaunted 
firmness, and when led before the emperor, addressed him in 
the following manner: "If my moderation in prosperity, 

Claudius, had been as conspicuous as my birth or fortune, 

1 should now have entered your city as a friend, and not as 
a prisoner ; but my misfortune redounds to your glory in 
proportion to the greatness of my opposition : I was lately 
possessed of subjects, horses, arms, and riches ; can you be 
surprised if I endeavoured to preserve them ? If you, Romans, 
wish to conquer all the world, must all nations tamely submit 
to servitude ? And now, if you resolve to put me to death, 
my story and your fame will be buried in oblivion ; but if 

2* 



18 ORIGIN AND MILITARY 

you think proper to preserve my life, I shall remain a lasting 
monument of your clemency." This speech had such an 
effect upon Claudius, that he immediately pardoned Carac- 
tacus, and ordered him and his family to be set at liberty. 

The Britons, though conquered, still panted after their 
freedom, and this spirit was not a little heightened by the 
insolence and oppression of the Roman soldiers : their yoke 
became every day more intolerable, and at last kindled those 
discontents, which shortly after broke out into an open flame. 

Practagus, king of the Iceni, at his death had bequeathed 
half his dominions to Nero, hoping by the sacrifice of 
a part, to secure the remainder to his daughters ; but the 
Roman procurator immediately took possession of the whole ; 
and when Boadicea, the widow of the deceased monarch, 
attempted to remonstrate, he ordered her to be cruelly 
scourged like a slave, and infamously ill-treated her daugh- 
ters. The Iceni quickly flew to arms, and were immediately 
followed by all the other states : Boadicea, a woman of mas- 
culine courage, was appointed to head the common forces, 
which amounted to upwards of 200,000 men. She attacked 
the Roman colonies with great fury, and after cutting to 
pieces the whole infantry of the ninth legion, marched to 
London, which was already a flourishing city. The Romans 
abandoning it at their approach, it was taken and pillaged 
by the Britons, who massacred the Romans and their allies, 
without distinction of age or sex, to the number of 70,000. 
Flushed with success, they boldly attacked the Roman in- 
trenchments ; the battle was obstinate and bloody ; Boadicea 
herself appeared in her chariot, with her two daughters, and 
harangued her army with undaunted firmness; but the 
undisciplined and fiery bravery of the troops was unable to 
withstand the cool intrepidity of the Romans ; they were 
entirely routed, and the victors granting no quarter, 80,000 
were left dead on the field of battle : Boadicea, resolving 
not to survive, first killed her daughters, and then poisoned 
herself. 

By this signal overthrow, the Britons, who had been sub- 
dued, were prevented from forming any more revolts, and 
those who had not yet submitted, were afraid to make inroads 
into the conquered countries. The Romans, however, wore 
now firmly established in the island till the time of Julius 
Agricola, who not only subdued the seventeen nations 
of the Britons, but carried the Roman arms almost to the 
extremity of Scotland, sending a fleet round the island, which 



HISTORY OF TilK BRITONS. ]9 

discovered the Orcades or Orkney isles, unknown till then 
by the rest of the world. In fine, he governed with such 
mildness and wisdom during the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, 
and Domitian, that the Britons began to prefer a life of peace 
and security to that rude independence which they had 
formerly enjoyed. For several years after the time of Agri- 
cola, little mention is made of the affairs of the Britons, who 
appear to have enjoyed a profound peace. In the year 121, 
Adrian, in order to stop the incursions of the North Britons, 
built an immense wall of wood and earth, extending eighty 
miles in length, from the river Edin, in Cumberland, to the 
Tyne, in Northumberland. This wall proving insufficient 
to stop the incursions of the Caledonians, was afterwards 
rebuilt in a more solid manner by Severus, and its remains 
are still viewed by the antiquarian with delight and aston- 
ishment. 

Thus, after two-and-forty years' struggle of an uncivilized 
and disunited people, against the most powerful nation in 
the Universe, the greater part of Britain became a province 
of the Roman empire in the fourth year of Domitian, one 
hundred and thirty-eight years after the first entrance of 
Julius Caesar, and the eighty-fourth year of the Christian 
era. During three hundred years from this period, the Ro- 
mans drew great riches from the country, and levied heavy 
tributes upon the inhabitants ; but at the same time they intro- 
duced humanity and civilization, which daily made way, 
and fitted the Britons for the light of the Gospel. At length 
Rome, the mistress of so many nations, began to sink under 
the weight of her own grandeur, and mankind, as if by gen- 
eral consent, rose up to vindicate their natural freedom. 
They were obliged, therefore, to withdraw their troops from 
this island, to defend themselves at home, carrying with 
them to Gaul all the British youth capable of bearing arms. 

The Scots and Picts, taking advantage of their absence, 
made incursions into the northern parts, and filled the coun- 
try with slaughter and consternation. Vortigern, king of the 
Danmonii, a haughty and insolent prince, who possessed 
neither wisdom in council nor experience in war, now 
governed the country. By his advice they agreed to call in 
the Saxons, a powerful nation of Northern Germany, to their 
assistance. The Saxons, who were then masters of what is 
now called the English channel, readily accepted the invi- 
tation, and sent over Hengist and Horsa, two brothers, who, 
with their followers, %oon checked the progress of the Scots 

I 
1 •■ 



00 RELIGION OF THE BRITONS. 

and Picts, and had the isle of Thanet assigned for their abode. 
Finding the lands of Britain so fertile, they began to medi- 
tate the conquest of the island ; and fresh supplies continually 
arriving, they at last drove the Britons into Wales, where 
their language and descendants still remain. 



CHAPTER II. 

Religion of the Britons. 

The religion of the Pagan Britons was superstitious and" 
horrible. They proceeded so far as to offer human bodies in 
sacrifice. Their priests, called Druids, enjoyed the highest 
honours and privileges ; so great was the veneration in 
which they were held, that, as Pliny informs us, " When 
two hostile armies, inflamed by warlike rage, with swords 
drawn and spears extended, were on the point of engaging 
in battle, at their intervention they sheathed their swords 
and became calm and peaceful." 

Among these Druids was one who had supreme authority 
over the rest, and presided at the general assembly, which 
was held once a year in Gaul. They were exempted from 
all military duties, imposts and taxes ; which privileges 
caused many to become their disciples. These disciples, 
who were principally of the best families, were taught a great 
number of verses by heart, not being allowed to commit 
their learning to writing. They taught the immortality and 
transmigration of the soul ; the plurality of gods, and the 
necessity of sacrifices to them, whom they believed had the 
government of the world, and the direction of future events. 
They also made discourses to their scholars concerning the 
heavenly bodies, their motions and magnitudes. This gave 
rise to astrology, augury, divination, and a multitude of 
abominable rites and ceremonies. One of the absurd articles 
of the Druidical creed was, that to build temples to the 
gods, or to worship them within walls, and under roofs, was 
unlawful ; all their places of worship were, therefore, in the 
open air, and in groves. In the centre of the grove was a 
circular space, enclosed with one or two rows of large stones, 
set perpendicularly in the earth, of which some vestiges 
remain to this day. 






HISTORY OF THE BRITONS. 21 

History is silent as to the exact time of the introduction 
of Christianity into this island ; yet it is highly probable, from 
the concurring testimony of several writers, that it was 
favoured with the rays of the Gospel before the end of the first 
century. Eusebius, the pious and learned bishop of Caesarea, 
who flourished at the beginning of the fourth century, and 
was highly favoured by Constantine the Great, positively 
asserts, that the Christian religion was first preached in the 
south of Britain by the apostles, or their immediate disciples ; 
and it is reasonable to suppose that the successes of the 
Romans, which, by divine appointment, were the means of 
propagating the true religion, paved the way to such an 
event in Britain. Many also of the soldiers and officers 
in the Roman army were Christians : and as their legions 
were repeatedly sent over to Britain, Christianity doubtlessly 
was embraced by some portion of the natives. 

Be this as it may, it appears certain that Lucius, sur- 
named Pius, the son of Coitus, who reigned during the time 
of the emperor Trajan, and his successor Adrian in the 
second century, by conversing with some Christians who 
frequented his court, became so convinced of the truths of 
their religion, as to send two Britons to Pope Eleutherius to 
request that he and his subjects might be made Christians. 
Tryatius and Damianus, two pious and learned Romans, 
immediately repaired to the royal palace, where they in- 
structed and solemnly baptized the king and queen. The 
nobility, the Druids, and people, eager to follow the example 
of a king they revered, flocked in crowds to the holy men : 
their idols were thrown down, their altars overturned, and 
their temples consecrated to the God of the Christians ; and 
Britain had thus the honour of having the first European 
king who professed the Catholic faith. 

After the suppression of the revolt of Boadicea, Britain 
enjoyed for many years great tranquillity, and presented a 
desirable asylum to those Christians who were cruelly per- 
secuted in other places, particularly at Rome, the greater 
part of which city having been reduced to ashes, Nero, that 
cruel tyrant and persecutor of the church, in order to divert 
the suspicion of his having been the incendiary, laid the 
blame upon the Christians, and on that false pretence put 
some of them to the most cruel deaths. From these dread- 
ful sufferings great multitudes fled to other countries, and 
particularly to this islanW, as to a place of greater safety. The 
persecution of Dioclesian, however, spread even to Britain, 



22 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c, OF THE BRITONS. 

where many bravely withstood the fury of their tormentors, 
and merited the glorious title of martyrs ; amongst whom 
may be mentioned St. Alban, the protomartyr of Britain, with 
Julius and Aaron, citizens of Caerleon. 

Persecution was not, however, the only obstacle raised 
by the enemy of mankind to obstruct the propagation of the 
gospel. Pelagius, a native of this island, a monk, and after- 
wards abbot of Bangor, in Wales, promulgated opinions con- 
trary to the doctrine of the church, which, though they 
could not pervert the faith of the people, confounded by 
their sophistry the simplicity of their pastors, unaccustomed 
as they were to the subtleties of controversy. 

To put a stop to the progress of error, and support the 
doctrine of the church, St. Germanus of Auxerre, with the 
concurrence of Pope Celestine, twice visited Britain; the 
first time with St. Lupus of Troyes, and again with St. Sev- 
erus of Treves. They met the disciples of Pelagius in the 
synod of Verulam, and after many arguments converted 
them to the true faith. But now arose a more formidable 
enemy : the Saxons invaded the island, and after a dreadful 
struggle, the religion and government of the Britons sunk 
under their powerful and persevering efforts .. 



CHAPTER III. 

Laws, Government, Sfc. of the Britons. 

The civil government of the Britons was, like that of the 
Gauls, composed of several nations, under as many petty 
princes. Whether these principalities descended by suc- 
cession or election is uncertain ; but upon all great and 
imminent dangers, a chief was usually chosen by common 
consent, as was Cassibelanus against the Romans. In com- 
mon cases, each principality owed allegiance to its particu- 
lar prince alone. 

As agriculture and commerce were but very imperfectly 
known, and extensive tracks were covered with woods and 
marshes at the time of the Roman invasion, it is probable 
that the country was not very populous. If we allow about 
800,000 persons of both sexes, it wi^most likely be pretty 
near the truth. 

The power of the British chieftains u is circumscribed 



COMMERCE, SHIPPING, kc. 23 

within very narrow bounds. A fierce and martial people, 
with Druids who had so much influence, were not likely to 
submit to the will of the sovereign as a supreme law. 
"None," says Tacitus, speaking of the Britons, "can inflict 
stripes or correction but their priests ; and they do it, not at 
the command of their general, but in obedience to their 
gods, who they pretend are peculiarly with their armies 
in war." Their laws were couched in verse. Murderers 
and robbers were burnt to death. Those who betrayed or 
deserted the cause of their country, were hanged on trees ; 
and cowards, sluggards, and habitual drunkards, were suf- 
focated in mires and bogs. Flocks and herds were the most 
valuable possession of almost all nations, in the earlier period 
of their history. A high price was therefore set, not only 
upon the life, but even the limbs of each useful animal. By 
the ancient laws of Wales, it was forbidden under a pen- 
alty to throw a stone at an ox in the plough, to tie the yoke 
too tight about his neck, or urge him to too great an effort in 
drawing. By the laws of succession, a man's lands, at his 
death, were equally divided among all his sons, and when any 
dispute arose it was determined by the Druids. The youngest, 
it appears, was more favoured than the eldest, or any of his 
brothers. {: When the brothers have divided their father's 
estate, the youngest shall have the best house, with the 
implements of husbandry, his father's axe, his kettle and 
knife." These three last things the father cannot take away 
by gift, nor leave by his will, to any but his youngest son : 
and if they are pledged they shall be redeemed. To account 
for this law is not difficult : the elder brothers of a family 
were supposed to have left their father's house before his 
death, and to have obtained houses of their own ; but the 
youngest was considered, by reason of his age, more help- 
less, or not so well provided. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Commerce, Shipping, cS*c. 

For a considerable period before the invasion of the 
island by Julius Cresar, the commerce of Britain was very 
flourishing, particularly; among the southern and eastern 
tribes, whose vicinity t<rthe coast of Gaul had tempted the 
researches and enterprise of that nation, and the Phu?nicians 



£4 COMMERCE, SHIPPING, &c. 

of Cadiz and Carthage. Tin, a metal held in high estimation 
in all parts of the world, on account of its various uses, and 
the facility with which it was manufactured, was a consid- 
erable article of exportation. Iron was in small quantities 
before the time of the Romans ; but after their invasion this 
most useful metal became very plentiful, and made a large 
part of the British export. Gems, and pearls, which were 
much esteemed by the Romans, were also exported from 
Britain ; and though they were probably inferior to those of 
India, yet some were very remarkable for their size and 
beauty. Cattle, which abounded in the island, also furnished 
several articles of exportation. British horses were so beau- 
tiful, and so admirably trained, that they were much valued 
by the Romans; as were also the dogs, which are thus 
described by Ossian : 

" There is a kind of does of mighty fame 

" In hunting, worthy of a fairer name, 

* By painted Britons, brave in war they're bred, 

" Are beagles called, and to the chase are led." 

The goods imported, according to Strabo, were ivory, 
bridles, gold chains, amber, and drinking glasses ; but after 
the Roman conquest, wine, spices, furniture, clothing, &c., 
became articles of importation. In the time of Nero, when 
London was already become a great city, abounding in 
merchants and merchandise, it of course also abounded in 
shipping. In the year 359 no fewer than eight hundred 
ships were employed in the exportation of corn alone ; 
the whole number, therefore, in the British trade must 
have been very great. By the departure of the Romans, 
the British suffered as much in their maritime affairs as 
in any other. The Roman fleets and garrisons being 
withdrawn, the British ships became an easy prey to the 
Frank and Saxon pirates, and were not even secure in 
their harbours, which obliged many of the merchants to 
retire with their effects into the interior provinces of the 
empire. 



MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c 25 

CHAPTER V. 
Manners, Customs, fyfi. 

The Britons were remarkable for the strength and size 
of their bodies. They excelled in running, swimming, 
wrestling, climbing, and all kinds of bodily exercises. Nature 
was no less liberal in the faculties of their minds ; they were 
acute and ingenious ; very capable of acquiring any art or 
science to which they applied. Julius Agricola loaded with 
praise the young men of Britain who studied the Roman 
learning, declaring that they excelled the youths of Gaul in 
genius. Valour was the most admired and popular virtue 
of the Britons. They were accustomed from their infancy 
to handle arms, and sing the warlike actions of their forefa- 
thers ; nor were they less remarkable for their love of liberty. 
To this powerful passion their leaders addressed all their 
harangues ; by this they were animated to so long and obsti- 
nate a resistance to their invading foes. The character 
given of them by Tacitus is probably very just, and certain- 
ly very honourable. " The Britons," says he, "are a people 
who pay their taxes, and obey the laws with pleasure, pro- 
vided no arbitrary and illegal demands be made uporr them; 
but these they cannot bear without the greatest impatience, 
for they are only reduced to the state of subjects, not of 
slaves." Hospitality was one of the most shining virtues of 
the ancient Britons ; as soon as a stranger visited them, they 
gave him the warmest reception, and testified the sincerest 
joy at his arrival : as long as he stayed, his person was 
esteemed sacred and inviolable, the season was devoted to 
festivity, and every amusement in the power of his host was 
prepared to make him pass his time agreeably. Nor were 
they less remarkable for the warmth of their natural affec- 
tions, their duty to their parents and superiors, and their 
inviolable attachment to their friends and families. 

Their new-born infants were plunged into some lake or 
river, even in the coldest weather, to strengthen their con- 
stitutions and harden their bodies ; every mother nursed her 
own offspring, without having the least idea that it was pos- 
sible for any other to perform that parental office. It wa* 
to this continual exercise and perfect liberty, joined to the 
simplicity of their diet, that Caesar ascribes the great strength 



26 MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. 

of body, and boldness of spirit to which the British youth 
attained. 

As to their clothing, the upper garment was a mantle, at 
first formed of the skins of beasts, and afterwards of a square 
piece of cloth, sufficiently large to cover the whole body, 
fastened on the breast or shoulder by a clasp, or instead of 
that with a thorn or sharp pointed piece of wood. Close 
trowsers, resembling pantaloons, were next introduced ; then 
the tunic or vest, adjusted to the shape of the body, and 
without sleeves ; they had no other shoes, but a piece of 
a skin of a horse, cow, or some other animal, tied about 
their feet. 

They took great care of their hair, which they considered 
as a principal ornament ; but they shaved the beard, except 
the upper lip, the hair of which they allowed to grow to a 
very inconvenient length. At their entertainments they 
used little bread, but a great quantity of flesh, either boiled,, 
broiled on the coals, or roasted on spits. Their drink at first 
was water, but they soon began to use the milk of animals. 
Before agriculture began to flourish, mead was their only 
strong liquor, and was a favourite beverage ; but after the 
introduction of agriculture, ale or beer became the general 
drink : wine was little known before the Roman invasion. 
Breakfast and supper were their only meals ; the guests sat 
in a circle upon the ground, with hay, grass, or the skin of 
some animal under them. Each guest took the meat before 
him in his hands, and tearing it with his teeth, fed upon it 
in the best manner he could. If any part could not be 
easily separated, a large knife lay in the middle, for the ben- 
efit of the company. Their dishes were either wood, earth- 
enware, or oziers, in the art of making which they excelled. 
Their drinking vessels were made of horn, but those of the 
Caledonians were mostly shells. 

The manner of burying the dead was as follows : they 
opened a grave six or eight feet deep; in this they laid the 
body of the deceased, who, if a warrior, had his sword, his 
bow, and his arrows, laid by his side. The favourite dogs of 
the deceased were sometimes buried with him : the funeral 
song was then sung by a number of bards, to the music of 
their harps. To want this ceremony was considered the 
greatest disgrace and misfortune, as they believed that with- 
out it their bodies could enjoy no rest nor happiness in a 
future state. 



BOOK II. 



Contemporary Sovereigns fromthe Heptarchy to thereign of Canute the Dane. 
Popes. 



A. D. 

Eugenius II 824 

Valentine 827 

Gregory IV 828 

Sergius 844 

Leo IV 847 

Benedict III 855 

Nicholas 858 

Adrian II 867 

John VIII 872 

Martin II 882 

Adrian III 884 

Stephen IV 885 

Formosus 891 

Stephen V 896 

Romanus 897 

Theodorus II S9S 

John IX 898 

Benedict IV 903 

Leo V . . 903 

Sergius III 905 

Anastasius III 911 

Lando 913 

John X 914 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST, AND KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Louis 1 814 1 Charles II. 880 

Lothaire 840 Arnoul 888 

Louis II 855 1 Lewis III «... 899 

Charles 1 873 I 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST ALONE. 

Conrad 912|Otho IT. ............... 973 

Henry 919 Otho III. . 983 

Otho 936 Henry II 1002 

EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 



Leo VI 923 

Stephen VIII 929 

John XI 931 

Leo VII 938 

Stephen IX 939 

Martin III 943 

Agapetus II 946 

John XII 956 

Leo VIII 964 

Benedict V 964 

John XIII 965 

Benedict VI 973 

Domnus II 974 

Benedict VII 975 

John XIV ~ . 984 

John XV 986 

Gregory V 99ft 

Sylvester II 999 

John XVII 1003 

John XVIII. 1004 

Sergius IV 1009 

Benedict VIII 1012 



Michael II 821 

Theophilus 829 

Michael III 842 

Bisilius 867 

Leo VI 8S6 



Constantine Porphyrogenitus . 910 

Romanus the Younger .... 939 

Nicephorus 953 

Zemius 970 

Bazilius II 975 



KINGS OF FRANCE. 



Charles III 899 

Lewis IV 936 

Lothaire 954 



Lewis V . 986 

Hugh Capet 987 

Robert II. . 997 



28 



MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 



KINDS OF 

Congallus III 824 

Dongallus 829 

Alpinus 834 

Kennethus II 849 

Donaldus V 859 

Constantius II 865 

Ethus S78 

Gregory SSO 

Eonaldus VI 898 



SCOTLAND. 

Coostantine III 909 

Malcolm 943 

Indulphus 958 

Duffus 967 

Culeous 972 

Kenneth III 977 

Constantine IV 1002 

Grimus 1005 

Malcolm II 1014 



CHAPTER I. 

Military History of the Saxons. 

Mankind, in the possession of present enjoyment, are but 
too apt to overlook the prospect of future evil. The Britons 
did not foresee that their deliverers were to be their conquer- 
ors. The Saxons, however, after subduing the Scots and- 
Picts, soon pulled off the mask. They complained that their 
subsidies were ill paid, and demanded larger supplies of 
corn and other provisions, threatening to lay waste the coun- 
try if their demands were not complied with. The Britons, 
far from complying, desired them, since their numbers 
exceeded what they were able to maintain, to return home. 
Upon this the Saxons concluded a peace with the Scots and 
Picts, and turning all their strength against the Britons, over- 
ran the whole country, pillaging, burning, and massacreing 
the unhappy Britons, without distinction of age or sex. 

Vortigern, far from being reclaimed by these misfortunes, 
irritated his subjects by his crimes and his partiality for the 
Saxons, the daughter of 'whose chief he had espoused. He 
was deposed, and his son Vortimer placed upon the throne. 
Vortimer defeated the Saxons in several bloody battles, and 
during his reign Hengist wandered an adventurer on the 
coasts of the British seas ; but Vortimer dying, the father 
again took possession of the crown, and continuing the war 
against the Saxons, was in the end overthrown, and obliged 
to retire from Kent to London, about the year 458 ; from 
which time may be dated the first Saxon kingdom in Britain, 
viz. that of Kent. 

New adventurers continued to flock over under the names 
of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes : a band of these pirates, under 



MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 29 

the command of GEla, landed in the isle of Selsea, and after 
an obstinate resistance defeated the Britons, who retreated 
to the great forest of Andredswold, whence they were at 
last driven, and obliged to retire upon the fortress of Ande- 
rid, then deemed impregnable. The Saxons laid siege to 
the city, which after a most obstinate defence was taken, 
reduced to ashes, and the inhabitants put to the sword. By 
this conquest GEla secured his former acquisitions, and 
became the founder of the kingdom of Sussex, the second 
Saxon kingdom, in the year 490. t 

A few years after, a very powerful and active chieftain, 
named Cerdic, landed with his son Cenric at Yarmouth ; 
and though opposed with great intrepidity by the Britons, 
made good his settlement, and established the kingdom of 
Wessex about the year 496. He was soon followed by 
Porta, another Saxon leader, with his two sons, Bleda and 
Mazla, who landed at Portsmouth, so called from his name. 
Nazalead, king of the South Britons, styled by Henry of 
Huntingdon the greatest of all the British kings, assembling 
his troops, gave battle to Cerdic, and totally routed his right 
wing ; but pursuing the enemy "too eagerly, Cerdic fell on 
his rear, and at last defeated him, killing 5,000 of his men ; 
the king himself being left dead on the field of battle. An 
interregnum of six years ensued ; after which the Welsh 
annals place the beginning of the reign of king Arthur, the 
most renowned of our ancient princes. 

The history of this prince is so much obscured by fable, 
as to make some conclude that no such person existed : but 
a decisive proof of the contrary is, the discovery of his tomb 
at Glastonbury, where his coffin was found in the reign of 
Henry II. This renowned prince is said to have defeated 
the Saxons in twelve pitched battles : the last was fought on 
Badon Hill, supposed to be Bansdown, near Bath ; in which 
the Saxons received so terrible an overthrow, as to give the 
Britons no further molestation in those parts for many yeaw. 
In 543 Arthur was mortally wounded, fighting against his 
treacherous nephew Mordred, whom he killed on the spot ; 
five years after, the Saxon kingdom of Northumberland was 
erected. 

Whilst Cerdic was combating the southern Britons, several 
tribes, with Erkenwin at their head, sailed up the mouth of 
the Thames, and disembarking on the left bank of that river, 
founded the kingdom of Essex, or of the East Angles. Fresh 
swarms continued to arrive, and landing to the north of their 

3* 



30 MILITARY HISTORY OF TirE SAXONS. 

countrymen, the East Angles, under the command of UfFa, 
became very powerful. 

But the great body of the Angles had penetrated more 
towards the north, where they succeeded in driving the Bri- 
tons from the coast ; and sending colonies across the Humber, 
pushed on, their conquests even to the centre of the island. 
They were called Mercians ; and by some, Middle Angles,, 
from their central position. 

Th# Britons were now confined within very narrow bounds: 
but before they gave up the best part of their country, they 
resolved once more to try the fate of battle. The action 
was fought at Woden's Heath, in Wiltshire, near the ditch 
called Warsdyke, which runs through the midst of the 
county. The battle was obstinate and bloody, and the Sax-- 
ons in the end were obliged to flee. This victory, however, 
proved of small service to the Britons ; who, being greatly 
inferior in number, were at last obliged to take refuge among 
the craggy and mountainous places in the west of the island, 
while others crossing the ocean, landed on the western 
extremity of Armorica, and gave- to- the part thus conquered- 
the name of their native country. It is still known by the 
name of Bretagne. 

Thus, after a brave and obstinate resistance, the Saxons 
erected seven independent kingdoms, commonly called the- 
Heptarchy. Of these kingdoms, the- most warlike, and that 
which in the end swallowed up all the rest, was Wessex. 
Ina, one of the successors of its founder Cerdic, was more 
renowned, and illustrious than all his predecessors. In less 
than a year after he had mounted the throne of Wessex, he 
was declared monarch of the Anglo Saxons; a remarkable 
proof of the character he had acquired. He compiled a 
body of laws, which served as a model for those afterwards 
published by Alfred. After a glorious reign of thirty-seven 
years, he made a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his return 
shut himself up in a cloister, where he died. 

HO!). — Egbert, grand nephew of Xna, after having been 
obliged to retire to France, to avoid the jealousy of Brithric, 
the reigning prince, was upon his death recalled, and 
acknowledged king, to the great joy of the West Saxons. 

In Hie beginning of his reign, he wisely employed himself 

in gaining the affections of his people, and then turned his 

against the Britons, the Mercians, the Cantii. the South 

and East Saxons, and lastly the Northumbrians, whom he 

conquered, one after the other, and thus put an end to the- 



MILITARY HISTORY OF THK SAXONS*. ;jj 

Saxon heptarchy. He was then solemnly crowned king of 
all Britain, and by proclamation he commanded the whole 
heptarchy to be called England. Scarcely, however, was 
he settled on his united throne, when he and his subjects 
became alarmed at the approach of a new and unexpected 
enemy, and the island was once more exposed to fresh inva- 
sions. 

The Danes, a tribe of those nations who had conquered 
the countries bordering on the Baltic, began to infest the 
western coasts of Europe, and filled all places wherever they 
went with slaughter and desolation. 

Their first appearance in England was during the reign 
of Brithric ; but it was not till about five years after the 
accession of Egbert, that their invasion became truly formi- 
dable. After various descents and depredations, they were 
totally routed in a pitched battle, by Egbert, at Hensdown 
Hill, near Kellington. This victory secured the kingdom 
for some time; but the death of Egbert emboldened the 
enemy to renew their devastations. 

836. — Ethelwolf succeeded his father Egbert on the 
throne. This pious prince had been educated by St. 
Swithin, bishop of Winchester; and, more desirous of a 
celestial than an earthly crown, he divided the kingdom-, 
with his brother Athelstan. His pacific disposition embold- 
ened the Danes to renew their invasions ; but Ethelwolf, 
putting his confidence in the God of battle, engaged the 
enemy at Oakley, in Surrey, and after a bloody battle totally 
defeated them ; whilst his brother Athelstan, encountering 
them at Sandwich, gained a complete victory, taking also 
many of their ships. Being now left in some repose, he, 
with his youngest son Alfred, made a pilgrimage to Rome, 
where he remained a year, during which time he presented 
many valuable gifts to the Holy See, and founded a school 
for the English. Not long after he died, and was buried in 
the cathedral of Winchester in 857, after a reign of about 
twenty-two years, leaving the kingdom between his sons 
Ethel'bald and Ethelbert. 

857. — Ethelbald, in the beginning of his reign, made 
himself odious by his vices. He incestuously married his 
step-mother Judith, contrary to the laws of God and man ; 
but by the admonition and prayers of St. Swithin he soon 
repented of his crime, put away his unlawful wife, and dying 
shortly after, was buried at Sherburne. He reigned about, 
three years.. 



3:2 MILITAR! HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 

860. — Ethelbert thou became sole monarch of England ; 
and after a pious reign of about five years, during which the 
kingdom was much harassed by the Danes, he died, sin- 
cerely lamented by his subjects, and was interred with great 
pomp in the cathedral of Sherburne. 

865. — Ethelbert was succeeded by his brother Etheldred. 
His reign was one continued conflict with the Danes. These 
barbarians, after plundering and burning the famous abbeys 
of Lindisfame and Croyland, in Lincolnshire, massacred the 
monks ; and passing on to those of Medeshamsiede and the 
isle of Ely, which they also burnt, they inflicted on the 
abbess and nuns of the latter, indignities w r orse than death, 
and then put them to the sword, or threw them into the 
flames. Of the nuns of Coldingham, a story is related by 
Matthew of Westminster, which, though not absolutely cer- 
tain, is yet highly probable. Ebba, the abbess, at the 
approach of the Danes, alarmed for the honour of her trem- 
bling sisters, exhorted them to prefer the purity of their 
bodies to their beauty ; and at that instant, drawing a knife 
from her bosom, inflicted a ghastly wound on her face. The 
nuns immediately followed her example, and the Danes, 
filled with horror and rage at the spectacle, consumed them 
in the flames of their monastery. Advancing to Thetford, 
they were opposed by St. Edmund, a tributary king of the 
East Angles ; who, with a small body of troops, discomfited 
them : but fresh numbers arriving, Edmund, unwilling- to 
sacrifice any lives in a fruitless opposition, disbanded his 
army, and retired into Suffolk ; here being overtaken, he was 
bound and conducted to the tent of the general. Proposals 
were made to him inconsistent with his religion, which he 
immediately rejected : upon his refusal, he was beaten with 
cudgels, tied to a tree, and torn with whips : after which 
they shot at him as a mark, and finally beheaded him. 

Etheldred, with his brother Alfred, fought many bloody 
though indecisive battles with the Danes : in one of these 
the king received a wound, which caused his death ; though 
some historians affirm that he died of the plague, leaving to 
his brother Alfred a kingdom reduced to the brink of ruin. 

871. — Alfred had scarcely mounted the throne, when he 
was obliged to give battle .to the Danes, at Wilton, where, 
with a very inferior army, he routed them; but perceiving 
the small number of their pursuers, they rallied, and after a 
severe straggle, remained masters of the field. Alfred, no 
ways dispirited, prepared to renew the attack ; the enemy, 






MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 33 

however, dreading his warlike genius, preferred peace, and 
promised to quit England. But neither treaties nor vows 
could bind them, and they only removed to another part, 
pillaging and destroying every thing. New swarms contin- 
uing to arrive, Alfred found it impossible to make head 
against them, and therefore for a time gave up the contest, 
and withdrew secretly to a retreat in the county of Somerset. 
Here he supported with resignation and piety his humble 
lot, in hopes of better times. It is said, that one day musing 
on the miseries of his country, he happened to let some 
cakes burn, which the herdsman's wife, with whom he 
lodged, had entrusted to his care. She reproached him 
severely ; telling him. he was more ready to eat, than work 
for his bread* 

Meanwhile- the Danes carried terror over the whole coun- 
try, ravaging and destroying without opposition. The Earl 
of Devonshire, who had, with a few followers, thrown him- 
self into the castle of Kenwith, finding himself unable to sus- 
tain a siege, was resolved, with his followers, to cut his way 
through the Danes, sword in hand. This he not only accom- 
plished, but also routed them with great slaughter, killing' 
their general, Ubba. This victory revived the courage of the 
Saxons ; and Alfred, quitting his retreat, and taking advan- 
tage of their disposition, animated them to a vigorous exer- 
tion of their superiority. Wishing, however, to be fully 
instructed in the forces and position of the enemy, and 
knowing no one in whom, he could confide, he undertook 
this dangerous attempt himself. In the dress of a minstrel, 
with a harp in his hand, he entered the Danish camp, and 
was so much admired for his performance on that instrument, 
that he was taken into the presence of their general, with 
whom he remained some days. Here he had an opportu- 
nity of remarking the supine security of the Danes, and 
their contempt of the Saxons. Then returning to his follow- 
ers, he appointed them to meet him in the forest of Selwood : 
a summons which they joyfully obeyed. It was against the 
most unguarded quarter of the Danes h ; e made his attack, 
whilst they, surprised to behold an enemy whom they had 
considered as totally subdued, made but a faint resistance,, 
and were slaughtered in immense numbers. The remainder 
fled to one of their fortified castles, where Alfred besieging 
them, they were obliged to sue for peace ; which was grant- 
ed on the following terms, viz. that their king Gothrun 
should embrace Christianity ; that they shouM for ever quit 



34 MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 

his dominions, and give up a certain number of hostages as 
a security for the due performance of the treaty. A short 
time after, Gothrun and many of his officers were baptized, 
and he then returned to East Anglia, where, notwithstanding 
many efforts were made by some of his countrymen to 
induce him to break the treaty, he remained faithful to his 
engagements, and contributed not a little to repel the ravages 
of subsequent marauders. 

Alfred, now at peace, set himself to repair the damages 
occasioned by the war. His first attention was to establish 
a navy, and in three years he had already provided a con- 
siderable fleet ; so that he may be regarded as the founder 
of the naval glory of his country. His next care was for 
the encouragement of religion, morality, and learning ; 
and he very much restrained, by his wise enactments, the 
barbarous habits of his subjects. When he ascended the 
throne, he found them plunged into the grossest ignorance, 
owing to the continued disorders and ravages of the Danes. 
He invited over the most celebrated men for learning 
and piety, from all parts of Europe, and re-established the 
university of Oxford, endowing it with many privileges. At 
length, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine years and a 
half, he died on the 25th of October, 900, in the fifty-first 
year of his age. He fought no fewer than fifty-six battles 
with the Danes. 

900. — Edward, his second son, succeeded him on the 
throne. During the whole of his reign there were but few 
intervals free from insurrections and battles with the North- 
umbrians. He gained many victories over them, and was 
greatly assisted in his councils by his sister Ethelfleda, widow 
of Ethelbert, earl of Mercia, who, after her husband's death, 
retained the government of that province. By their united 
efforts Edward acquired more solid power than had ever been 
possessed by any of his predecessors. The country from 
Northumbria to the channel owned his sway; the kings of 
the Scots and princes of Wales paid him tribute ; and the other 
nations eagerly solicited his friendship. He did not long, 
however, enjoy his power : he died at Farringdon in Berk-, 
shire in 924, and was buried near his father at Winchester. 

9-2 1. — Athelstax. — To him succeeded Athelstan, whose 
reputed illegitimacy did not prevent his accession to the 
throne: though not without opposition from Alfred, a noble- 
man of his kindred, who conspired with his accomplices to 
seize him in the city of Winchester, and put out his eyes, 



MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 35 

The plot was discovered : but Alfred denying the charge, 
was sent to Rome to clear himself before the Pope, where, 
while taking the oath before the altar of St. Peter, he fell 
down in a lit, and being carried to the English school, he 
died three days afterwards. 

Athelstan having subdued the Northumbrians, made war 
upon Constantine king of Scotland, who had assisted Godefrid 
the Northumbrian king. This prince, with AnlafF of Ireland 
and Eugenius of Cumberland, invaded England by the 
llumber; but being met in Northumberland by Athelstan, a 
bloody battle ensued, in which, after prodigies of valour on 
both sides, Constantine being killed, the Scots and their 
allies were put to flight, with dreadful slaughter. This vic- 
tory added so much to the reputation of Athelstan, that all 
the princes of Christendom eagerly courted his alliance. 
He soon after invaded Wales, which he easily reduced; and 
ordering their petty kings to meet him at Hereford, he 
imposed a tribute on them of twenty pounds of gold, three 
hundred pounds of silver, 25,000 beeves, and as many hounds 
and hawks as he should demand. Thus dreaded at home 
and abroad, he lived in peace ; and dying in November 
940, was buried at Malmesbury. 

940. — Edmund, his brother, succeeded him, at the age 
of eighteen. In the second year of his reign he invaded 
Mercia, and freed that province from the authority of the 
Danes ; from whom he also took Leicester, Lincoln, Notting- 
ham, Stamford, and Derb}'. Peace however was concluded by 
the intervention of St. Otho, and St. Wasten the archbishop ; 
and AmlofF the Dane became a Christian, king Edmund 
being his godfather. The virtues, abilities, wealth, and 
temperance of Edmund promised him a long and happy 
reign ; when on a certain day, as he was solemnizing a fes- 
tival at Puckle church in Gloucestershire, he remarked 
Leolf. a notorious robber whom he had banished, audaciously 
enter the hall, and seat himself among the guests ; enraged 
at his insolence, Edmund commanded him to leave the 
room ; and on his refusing to obey, the king, who was natu- 
rally choleric, flew opon him and caught him by the hair. 
The villain giving way to his rage, drew his dagger and 
stabbed the monarch to the heart, who fell on the bosom of 
his murderer. The assassin was instantly cut to pieces : a 
small compensation for the lo?s of a monarch beloved by 
his people, and meriting their esteem. He was buried at Glas- 
tonbury in 916, of which monastery St. Dunstan was abbot 



36 MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 

946. — Edred. — The two sons of Edmund being too 
young to succeed him, his brother Edred was appointed 
king. His piety and bravery proved that he did not degene- 
rate from his ancestors. In the first year of his reign he 
subdued the Northumbrians, who had again revolted. He 
was soon after seized with a languishing distemper; and 
being admonished by St. Dunstan of his approaching death, 
he received the intelligence with resignation ; and after pass- 
ing his time in acts of virtue and devotion, he departed this 
life on the feast of St. Clement, in the flower of his age, after 
a reign of nine years, to the great grief of his subjects. 

955. — Edwy, the eldest son of Edmund, was now 
advanced to the throne, at the age of sixteen or seventeen. 
His beauty, which was remarkable, exposed him to the art? 
and allurements of seduction. At his court was a female of 
very great attractions, and nearly allied to the monarch. This 
lady and her mother had so insinuated themselves into his 
affections, that for their company he neglected every duty 
of a monarch. Even at his coronation, the dinner was 
scarcely over, when he withdrew from the venerable assem- 
bly of his prelates and nobles, into the chamber of these 
women. This was highly resented by his lords, who deputed 
St. Dunstan and the archbishop of Litchfield to seek him, and 
endeavour to bring him back to a sense of his duty. They 
accordingly entered the chamber, and finding the crown 
laid aside, and its wearer in the arms of these concubines, 
St. Dunstan severely rebuked the women, and gently repre- 
hending the king, besought him not to put so great an affront 
upon the nobles ; and notwithstanding his and their threats, 
he brought him back almost by force into' the assembly. 
Being thus thwarted in their guilty passions, they embraced 
every opportunity to gratify their revenge. The property of 
St. Dunstan was seized by a body of armed men, sent by 
permission from the king, and the Saint expelled from his 
convent, and obliged to seek refuge in Flanders, while reli- 
gion and the monasteries ielt severely the effects of the king's 
aversion. At length sentence of separation was decreed in 
a full assembly of the prelates and nobles, at which arch-} 
bishop Otho presided, and Ethelgiva was banished to Ire- 
land ; whence presuming to return, she was taken by a party 
of soldiers, who cruelly cut her hamstrings : a punishment 
sometimes inflicted on those who dared to return from ban- 
ishment. The vices and extravagances of Edwy augmenting 
daily the discontents of the people, the provinces to the 



MILITATlY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS-. % ffl 

north of the Humber transferred their allegiance to his 
brother Edgar. After an inglorious reign of nearly four 
years; Edwy died in 959, and was buried at Winchester. 

959. Edgar. — The death of Edwy made way for his 
brother Edgar, who mounted the throne at the age of 
sixteen. His reign was a continued calm ; so that he 
obtained the surname of Pacific. He was pious, generous, 
and politic, though not without some mixture of vice. He 
understood perfectly the interests of his kingdom, made 
many wholesome laws, and increased his navy to a surpris- 
ing degree. The happiness of his reign must in a great 
measure be ascribed to the wisdom of St. Dunstan, whose 
counsels he principally followed, and for whom he entertained 
the greatest veneration. He was, however, so vain ef his 
power, as to command eight of his tributary kings t© row 
him on the river Dee, whilst he held the steerage, after caus- 
ing them to take an oath to serve him faithfully by sea and 
land. He did not long survive this pompous ceremony ; 
dying, in 975, after a reign of sixteen years, in the thirty- 
second of his age. He was buried at Glastonbury. The 
zeal of this prince for the worship of God had a great influ- 
ence upon his people ; and he would have surpassed in hap- 
piness all his predecessors, had he not given way t© the 
crime which made David s© odious in the sight of M0, and 
drew upon his h©use the divine vengeance. The relation is 
shortly as follows : ©rdga, Duke ©f Devonshire, had a daugh- 
ter called Elfrida, the fame whose beauty was so great, 
that the king, t© be assured ©f the truth, sent his secretary 
Ethelwold t© ascertain it, being resolved to marry her if she 
was found as beautiful as was reported. Ethelwold suffered 
himself to be overcome by those charms, which he found 
even to surpass report ; and sacrificing his fidelity to his pas- 
sion, told the king that her fortune and quality alone pro- 
cured her the admiration of the world ; but he added, 
' ' though she has nothing worthy to claim the attention of a 
sovereign, yet her immense wealth and noble blood make 
her a proper match for me." Edgar, ready to promote the 
interest of his favourite, immediately granted his consent, and 
He was accordingly married to her. Royal favourites are 
never without enemies ; and indeed the deceit was of a 
nature not to be long concealed. Edgar was soon informed 
of the treachery of his secretary ; but dissembling his resent- 
ment, he took an occasion to visit that part of the country 
with Ethelwold. Upon coming near the abode of the lady, 
4 



38 MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 

he told him he had a curiosity to see a person of whom he 
had formerly heard so much, and desired to be introduced 
to her. Ethelwold was thunderstruck at the proposal ; but 
composing himself as well as he could, he requested he 
might ride on before, to prepare his wife for his Majesty's 
reception. On his arrival, he fell at his wife's feet, confess- 
ing what he had done to obtain her, conjuring her to con- 
ceal as much as possible her beauty from the king. She 
was now sensible, that instead of a monarch, she had espoused 
a subject. She promised compliance ; but, prompted by 
ambition and revenge, she adorned her person with the most 
exquisite art and allurement. The event answered her 
expectations : the king no sooner saw her, than giving way 
to his predominant passion, which was augmented by a thirst 
of revenge, he instantly resolved to obtain her. The better 
to effect his purpose, he concealed his passion from the hus- 
band, and took his leave with seeming indifference. Ethel- 
wold was some time after sent into Northumberland, upon 
pretence of urgent business, but was found murdered in a 
wood by the way : Edgar then married the widow, and had 
by her a son, named Ethelred. Sensible, however, soon 
after, of his enormous guilt, he sincerely bewailed it, and did 
penance for it the remainder of his life. He died in 975, 
regretted by all his subjects, after a reign of sixteen years 
and two months, in the thirty-second year of his age, and 
was buried at Glastonbury. 

Edward the Martyr. — Edward the Martyr, his son by 
his first wife, succeeded to the throne. He was a prince of 
a mild and pious disposition, shewing a great love of purity, 
and a veneration for religion and its ministers, followirig 
strictly the wise counsels of St. Dunstan. His step-mother, 
Elfrida. had attempted to set him aside, that her own son 
Ethelred might enjoy the crown. Notwithstanding her 
treasonable conduct, Edward always paid her the most duti- 
ful respect ; but the lust of ambition made her insensible to 
all motives of religion or gratitude ; the young king being 
one day hunting, paid a visit to Elfrida ; the treacherous 
queen received him with every mark of respect, and ordered^ 
some wine to be brought. While he was drinking, on a 
signal given, one of her servants stabbed him in the back 
with a dagger. The kinic, feeling the wound, set spurs to 
his horse ; but fainting with loss of blood, he fell, and died 
on the 16th of March. *>?*), in the eighteenth year of his 
age, and fourth of his reign. His body was plunged into 



MILITARY HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 39 

a deep marsh : but it was taken out and interred in the 
church of Our Lady of Wareham : three years afterwards it 
was found entire, and translated to the monastery of Shafts- 
bury. The wicked Elfrida, at last awakened to a just sense 
of her crimes, retired from the world, and built the monas- 
teries of Wherebul and Amblesbury, in the first of which 
she died in the practice of penance. 

979. — Ethelred. — By the death of Edward there was 
loft only one prince of the royal blood, which obliged the 
prelates and nobles, though with great reluctance, to place 
the crown on the head of Ethelred, the son of the mur- 
deress : Archbishop Dunstan, who performed the ceremony, 
declaring in a prophetic manner, as he put the crown upon 
his head, that his sins, and those of his ignominious mother, 
should not be expiated but by great bloodshed of his misera- 
ble people ; for such calamities should fall upon England as 
it never sustained since it had that name. AH which came 
shortly to pass ; for in addition to various internal calamities, 
the Danes again infested England, plundering, defacing, 
and destroying every thing that came in their way. Ethel- 
red, too slothful and cowardly to make head against them, 
agreed to give them £10.090, on condition that they should 
quit the country and no more infest the coast. " An infamous 
example," says Malmesbury, "and unworthy of men, to 
redeem their liberty with money, which no violence can 
force from a brave and unconquered mind." 

This sum of money, far from quieting the Danes, only 
made them the more eager ; and landing the next year, they 
exceeded, if possible, their former cruelties. They burnt 
Oxford and Cambridge, and laid waste the counties. Ethel- 
red had recourse to the same unworthy means, and a second 
and a third time procured a temporary respite, by increased 
sums of money. On now enjoying some repose, he listened 
to the evil counsel of some of his favourites, who advised him 
to destroy all the Danes at one blow. With the utmost 
secrecy, letters were sent to every part of his dominions, 
commanding all his subjects, at a certain day and hour, to" 
set upon the Danes wherever they found them, and destroy 
them without mercy. This command was strictly executed ; 
and the Danes, who by a solemn treaty had been permitted 
to inhabit England, were shamefully and barbarously mur- 
dered. This treachery did not long remain unpunished. 
Sweyn, king of Denmark, suddenly appeared off the coast 
with a numerous armv, breathing revenge ; and though he 



'40 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. 

was at first obliged, by the bravery of some English troops, 
and a horrible famine which infested the whole land, to 
withdraw to his ships, he soon received fresh reinforcements, 
and constrained Ethelred to flee into Normandy. Sweyn, 
who had been acknowledged king, died about a month after ; 
and Ethelred regained possession of the throne, which, at 
his death, he left to his son Edmund, suinamed Ironside, on 
account of his great bodily strength. 

1016. — Edmund Ironside. — Edmund fought many 
bloody battles with Canute, son of Sweyn, and gained seve- 
ral great victories ; but the Danish and English nobility, 
equally harassed by these convulsions, obliged their kings 
to come to a compromise, and divide the kingdom between 
them. Edmund was murdered about a month after, by a 
perfidious traitor, Edric, Earl of Wiltshire, who had long 
been in secret league with the Danes, and Canute was left 
in peaceable possession of the kingdom. 



CHAPTER IL 

Ecclesiastical Jiffairs of the Saxons. 

Religion suffered great persecutions in Britain from the 
barbarity of the Pagan Saxons. They burnt the churches, 
stained the altars with the blood of the clergy, and massacred 
all whom they found professing Christianity. Scarcely, 
however, had the Saxons obtained the undisputed possession 
of the kingdom, when a private monk conceived the exalted 
design of reducing these savage warriors under the obedience 
of the Gospel. Gregory, afterwards surnamed the Great, 
happening to pass through the public market at Rome, where 
some Saxon youths were exposed to sale, their beauty caught 
his eye, and demanding from what country they came, was 
informed they were Angles ; upon which, with a pious zeal 
he exclaimed, " Non Angli, sed Angeli forent, si essent 
Christiani:" — They would not be Angles, but Angels, if 
they were Christians. He immediately repaired to Pope 
Benedict, and obtaining a license from him, began his jour- 
ney towards Britain. But the Roman people would not 
suffer the absence of a man they so much venerated, and 1 
caused him to return. His elevation soon after to the papal 
throne obliged him to abandon the design: moved, how- 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. 41 

ever, as Bede says, by a divine impulse, in the fourth year 
of his pontificate he sent over Augustine, with some zealous 
monks, to preach the Gospel in Britain. But being discour- 
aged while on their journey by unfavourable reports, they 
dispatched Augustine, their superior, to Gregory, to beseech 
him that they might return home, and not be sent to a fierce 
and infidel nation, of whose language they were ignorant, 
and whom they had such slender hopes of converting. 
The Pope, however, sent back their messengers, exhorting 
them not to be discouraged by vain reports, but to pursue 
vigorously the great work they had so nobly undertaken, 
since their labours would be crowned with perpetual glory ; 
and to obey Augustine, whom he appointed their abbot. 

Of the Saxon kingdoms, the most ancient, and at the 
same time the best disposed to listen to the truths of Chris- 
tianity, was that of Kent. Bertha, daughter of Charibert. 
king of Paris, was married to Ethelbert the sovereign ; but 
before he was admitted to this alliance, he was obliged to 
stipulate that his princess should enjoy the free exercise of 
her religion. This, and the saintly life of Luidhard, the 
prelate who attended her, made very strong impressions 
upon the king, as well as his subjects, in favour of Christi- 
anity. It was at this favourable conjuncture that Augustine 
landed in the isle of Thanet, and sent one of his interpreters 
to the king, declaring he was come to conduct him to the 
gates of eternal felicity. The king consented to receive 
them ; but, according to the superstition of the times, fearful 
of their resorting to the influence of magic, he gave them 
audience in the open air. They were received by Ethel- 
bert most favourably, and though he did not immediately 
declare himself a Christian, the solemnity of the public ser- 
vice, the zeal, austerity, and virtue of St. Augustine and 
his followers had such a powerful effect upon him and his 
people, that he was soon after baptized with upwards of 
10,000 of his subjects. 

From Kent the faith spread to Essex and Northumber- 
land. Edwin, king of Northumbria, was married to Ethel- 
burgh, daughter of Ethelbert. This princess took with her 
the pious and learned bishop Paulinus into Northumbria. 
Edwin, solicited by his queen, held several conferences 
with Paulinus, disputed w r ith his counsellors, or meditated 
alone ; and after serious discussion-, determined to declare 
himself a Christian. Attended by Paulinus, he entered the 
great council, and exposed his reasons for embracing Chris* 

4* 



42 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. 

tianity. Coiffi, the high priest of the Druids, replied that he 
was ready and willing to listen to the reasons and examine 
the doctrine of Paulinus. He was followed by an ancient 
Thane, who, in the simple style of those times, spoke 
thus : " When, king, you are seated at your table in the 
depth of winter, and the cheerful fire blazes on the hearth, 
a sparrow, perchance chased by the wind and snow, enters 
at one door of the hall and escapes by the other. During 
its momentary passage, it enjoys the warmth ; but immedi- 
ately it departs to be seen no more. Such is the nature of 
man. For a few short years his existence is visible ; but 
what preceded it, or will follow it, is hidden from our view. 
If this new religion can give us any information on these 
important subjects, it merits our attention." To these reasons 
all assented, and Paulinus having explained the articles 
of the faith, the king expressed his determination to embrace 
it. When it was asked, who would dare to profane the altars 
of Woden, Coiffi boldly stept forward. Laying aside his 
priestly emblems, he put on the dress of a warrior, and 
mounted the favourite charger of Edwin ; then bidding 
defiance to the gods of his forefathers, he hurled his spear 
at the sacred edifice. It stuck in the wall, and to the astonish- 
ment of the superstitious and trembling spectators, the hea- 
vens remained silent, and the fancied sacrilege unpunished. 
Then recovering from their surprise, and encouraged by the 
exhortation of Coiffi, they burnt to the ground the temple 
and surrounding grove. 

So favourable a beginning inspired hopes of the entire 
conversion of the nation. But who can fathom the unsearch- 
able ways of Providence ! Edwin was slain, fighting bravely 
against Penda, king of Mercia, and Crechvalla, king of the 
Britons. The victors plundered the kingdom. Edilburga, 
her children, and Paulinus were compelled to seek an 
asylum in Kent, and the converts, deprived of instruction, 
relapsed into their former idolatry. Oswald, son of Adelfrid, 
the predecessor of Edwin, determined to revenge the cause 
of his country, and the death of his brother, whom Osedwalia 
had treacherously murdered. With a small but coura 
band of followers he met the enemy. Before the battle he 
ordered a cross to be erected, and the Saxons, prostrate 
before it, besought the protection of the God of the Chris- 
tians. From prayers tli i to victory \ Csed walla was 
slain, the enemy routed, md 6iwald ascended the throne of 
his ancestors. Piously attributing this sucess to the protection 



ECCLESIASTICAL ALVA IRS OF THE SAXONS. 43 

of heaven, he immediately turned his attention to religion, 
and besought a supply of missionaries from his former 
instructors. Aidan, a private monk, was selected to be the 
apostle of the Northumbrians. He was consecrated bishop, 
and by his ardent zeal, prudence, and piety, the church of 
Northumberland was fixed upon a solid and permanent 
foundation. 

In the kingdom of Essex, Seberet, nephew to Ethelbert, 
king of Kent, also embraced Christianity, and invited the 
abbot Melitus to reside in his metropolis. But after his 
death, his three sons, who were still attached to the worship 
of Woden, bursting into the church during the time of mass, 
demanded a portion of the consecrated bread. Melitus, 
who had latety been consecrated bishop, dared to refuse, 
and was in consequence banished. 

The merit of the conversion of the East Angles is princi- 
pally owing to the good Sigebert. No sooner had he 
ascended the throne, than Felix, a Burgundian prelate, com- 
missioned by Honorius of Canterbury, requested permission 
to instruct his subjects. By their united efforts Christianity 
was rapidly diffused, and a school after the model of one at 
Canterbury was established. 

In the south, Berinus, animated by a holy zeal, obtained a 
commission from Pope Honorius. Scarcely had he opened 
his mission, when, by a providential concurrence of cir- 
cumstances, Oswi, son of Oswald of Northumbria, arrived at 
the court of Cynegils, to demand his daughter in marriage. 
He powerfully seconded the arguments of Berinus ; the 
prince and his daughter embraced the Christian faith, and 
their example was followed by his subjects. 

Mercia, the most powerful kingdom of the heptarchy, 
owed its conversion also to a woman. Peada, son of Penda, 
had offered his hand to the daughter of Oswin, successor of 
Oswald: but she rejected the addresses of a Pagan. The 
passion of the prince induced him to study her religion. His 
conversion was rewarded with the object of his affections ; 
and to those who doubted his sincerity he replied, that not 
even the refusal of Alcfleda should ever induce him to 
return to the worship of Woden. To give a proof of his 
sincerity, he procured four priests to instruct the Middle 
Angles, whom he governed during the life of his father. 

The kingdom of Sussex was the last to embrace Christian- 
ity ; but their blindness and prejudices gave way to the 
piety, zeal, and address of St. Wilfrid. His first converts 



44 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. 

were two hundred and fifty slaves, who, together with the 
isle of Selsea, he had received from their king Edilwalch. 
On the clay of their baptism their benevolent instructor set 
them at liberty, declaring that they ceased to be his bonds- 
men from the moment they became children of Christ. This 
liberality of St. Wilfrid was greatly felt ; many crowded to 
his sermons, and in the space of five years the Christian 
religion was firmly established. 

Thus, in about the space of eighty years, the conversion 
of the Anglo-Saxons was completed ; an enterprise begun 
by Gregory the Great, and continued with unremitting zeal 
by his disciples. Its benign effects upon the body of the 
nation were quickly felt ; for, from the date of their conver- 
sion, the Saxons, who had been accounted the most ferocious 
and barbarous of all the nations that had invaded the Roman 
empire, became mild, humane, and pious. Even in victory 
they learned to respect humanity ; and the lives and proper- 
ties of the vanquished were protected by their Christian con- 
querors. Religious knowledge, and the presence of the 
bishops and clergy, improved the wisdom of the national 
councils ; and the humane idea, that by baptism all men 
became brethren, meliorated the condition of the slave, and 
at length abolished so odious an institution. The conviction 
of a future state expanded their ideas, and, teaching them 
to despise all earthly grandeur, caused even many of their 
kings to descend from their thrones, and pass the remainder 
of their lives in monasteries. 

St. Austin divided the country into two archbishoprics, 
viz. London, which was afterwards transferred to Canterbury, 
and York, with twelve suffragan bishops to each ; after which, 
he turned his solicitude towards the Britons, whose religion 
and morals had been much weakened by the long and 
unsuccessful wars they had waged against their fierce inva- 
ders. Many also of the clergy, during these unhappy times, 
were more anxious to enjoy the emoluments, than discharge 
the duties of their calling. 

St. Gregory lamented, and endeavoured to remedy these 
disorders. He invested St. Austin with an extensive juris- 
diction over all the bishops of the Britons. At a conference 
held with seven of them, he demanded their conformity on 
three points, viz. the observation of the orthodox time of 
Easter ; conformity with the Roman rite, in the administra- 
tion of baptism ; and concert with him in preaching the gos- 
pel to the Saxons. These requests were how r ever refused, 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXON'S. 45 

and his metropolitan authority rejected : upon which the 
archbishop, rising up, exclaimed, " Know then, that if you 
will not assist me in pointing out to the Saxons the way of 
life, they, by the just judgments of God, will prove to you the 
ministers of death." Augustine did not long survive this 
unsuccessful attempt ; and his prediction was verified a few 
years after by Edilfrid, the Pagan king of Northumberland, 
who in the year 013 entered the British territories, and 
destroyed nearly I ,200 monks from the monastery of Bangor, 
who were assembled on a neighbouring mountain, to pray for 
the success of the Britons in the battle. 

The choice of bishops was at first reserved to the national 
synods, in which the primate presided ; it afterwards devolved 
to the clergy of each church, whose choice was corroborated 
by the presence and acclamations of the more respectable 
among the laity. But feudal jealousy forbad the consecra- 
tion of the elected bishop till the royal consent was obtained ; 
and at the same time the monarch claimed the right of 
investing the new prelate with the temporalities of his bish- 
oprick. These encroachments were progressive, till in the 
end the rights of the chapter were openly invaded, and 
bishops were appointed, without waiting for the choice of 
the clergy. At last the Pontiff interfered, and reclaimed the 
ancient freedom of canonical election, which gave rise to 
those frequent disputes concerning investitures, so much to 
the scandal and disorder of the nation. 

In the infancy of the Saxon church, the scanty supply of 
missionaries was unequal to the increasing demands of the 
people. The bishop either followed the court, and preached 
according to his leisure ; or fixed his residence in some par- 
ticular spot, whence, attended by his clergy, he visited the 
remote parts of his diocese, which was then of an enormous 
extent, equal to that of the kingdom in which it was estab- 
lished. Churches were not erected, except, in monasteries, 
or the more populous cities : and the inhabitants of the 
country depended for instruction on the casual arrival of 
priests, whose charity, or the orders of their superiors,, 
induced them to undertake those laborious duties. This 
was soon found be} r ond the powers of the most zealous to 
fulfil. St. Theodore, the primate, distributed each diocese 
into a number of parishes, exhorting the Thanes or nobles 
to erect and endow, with the permission of the sovereign, 
a competent number of churches ; and to stimulate their 
devotion, he secured to them and their heirs a right of 



46 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS OF THE SAXONS. 

patronage, reserving at the same time that authority which 
was necessary for the government of his clergy. 

As to the revenues of the church, they consisted princi- 
pally of donations of lands which were from time to time 
bestowed by the pious liberality of our ancestors ; and their 
value was greatly augmented by the privileges and immu- 
nities annexed to them. This spirit of munificence, which 
distinguished the first converts, was inherited by many of 
their descendants. In every age of the Saxon dynasty, we 
may observe numerous additions to the original donations. Of 
many, the great object was to support the ministers of reli- 
gion, and, by supporting them, to contribute to the service 
of the Almighty. Others were desirous to relieve their 
indigent brethren ; and with this view they confided their 
charities to the distribution of the clergy, the legitimate 
guardians of the patrimony of the poor. A third class was 
composed of thanes, who, having acquired riches by suc- 
cessful crimes, and deferred restitution till the victims of 
their injustice had disappeared, were induced to confer, as a 
tardy atonement, some part of their property on the church. 
The principal resource, however, of the parochial clergy, 
was the institution of tithes, after the example of the law of 
Moses. These, till about the seventh century, had been 
voluntary ; but mankind are not always prompted to make 
pecuniary sacrifices from a sense of duty alone, and the 
institution of parochial churches imperiously required an 
augmentation of the number of pastors. To provide, there- 
fore, for their support, the payment of tithes was strictly 
commanded by civil, and ecclesiastical authority. These 
revenues, from whatever source, were divided into four equal 
parts : one to the bishop, for the support of his dignity ; a 
second for the maintenance of the clergy ; a third furnished 
the repairs of the church, and the religious ornaments; and 
the last was devoted to charitable purposes. 

Each Sunday the priest explained in English that portion 
of the Bible which was read during mass, and devoted a 
part of his time to the instruction of his parishioners. Every 
dissipating and indecorous employment was forbidden to the 
clergy ; they could neither accept of civil offices, nor engage 
in commercial speculations. Public diversions they were 
exhorted to despise, and to employ their leisure hours in 
the study of the scriptures, and the exercise of manual 
labour. Their dress was to be plain and decent, conforma- 
ble to the severity of the canons. The celibacy of the 



LEARNING, &c. OF THE SAXONS. 47 

clergy was strictly enjoined, and for more than two hundred 
and fifty years from the death of St. Austin, was strictly 
enforced. But during the devastations of the Danes, and the 
consequent disorders, some of the clergy did not scruple to 
violate the chastity they had sworn to observe. Yet, even 
in those unhappy times, these marriages were never 
approved ; and as often as a transient gleam of tranquillity 
invited the prelates to turn their attention to the restora- 
tion of discipline, the prohibitions of former synods were 

renewed. 

* 

Learning and Learned Men. 

When the Romans invaded Britain, they instructed and 
improved those whom they subdued. The Saxons, on the 
contrary, a fierce and illiterate people, marked their progress 
by destruction. All the libraries left by the Romans, were 
destroyed by their ravages ; and if science was not totally 
extirpated, it is to religion alone they owed the blessing. The 
duties of the priesthood necessarily required a daily study 
of the Scriptures, and a familiarity with the ancient fathers. 
The study of the Latin was necessary to the knowledge of 
the church service ; and for this purpose schools were estab- 
lished in the monastic and clerical communities. The study 
of this language produced an acquaintance with the works 
of the poets and philosophers of Greece and Rome ; and in 
these studies the Saxon clergy and monks acquired a distin- 
guished superiority over the other nations of Europe. It was 
to Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Adrian, Abbot 
of St. Peter's, that the Saxons were indebted for this advan- 
tage. Compassionating the ignorance of their converts, 
these holy men dedicated their leisure hours to their instruc- 
tion ; and masters, formed under their inspection, were dis- 
persed among the principal monasteries. To discover and 
collect the remains of ancient knowledge, was among the 
principal objects which prompted the Anglo-Saxons to visit 
distant countries ; and in the monasteries these manuscripts 
were soon found multiplied by innumerable copies, a con- 
siderable portion of time being allotted to the transcription. 
The most ancient of these libraries was that of Canterbury, 
which owed its establishment to Gregory the Great, but was 
much increased by Archbishop Theodore. Another collec- 
tion was possessed by the monastery at Weremouth, the 
fruit of the labours of St. Bennet Biscop ; but the most 



48 LEARNING, &c. OF THE SAXONS. 

extensive appears to have been that of York, in the cata- 
logue of which, given by Alcuin, we find the name of almost 
every distinguished Latin author. 

In their system of education, religious knowledge and 
morality were their principal studies ; but other departments 
were not neglected. It is true, these sciences were mixed 
with many errors, which must be attributed to the igno- 
rance of the times, more than to their want of industry or 
penetration. 

A catalogue of their authors has been collected, among 
whom the most worthy of notice are St. Bennet Biscop, 
Aldhelm, Bede, and Alcuin. 

St. Bennet Biscop, or Benedict, was nobly descended, 
and one of the great officers of the court of Oswy, the pious 
king of Northumberland; but seeing nothing but dangers in 
the allurements of a court, he bade adieu to the world at the 
age of twenty-five, and went on a pilgrimage to Rome. Five 
or six years after he made another journey, and before his 
return became a monk, and was afterwards chosen abbot of 
St. Peter's, in Canterbury. In three other journeys which 
he took, he exceedingly enriched that library. He brought 
from Germany and Gaul, masons to build his monastery of 
Weremouth ; stone buildings before that time being very 
rare in England. He also founded the abbey of Jarrow, on 
the banks of the Tyne. He died in 690. 

St. Aldhelm, abbot of Malmesbury, and afterwards bishop 
of Sherbum, was a West Saxon, a near relation to king 
Ina, and received his education under St. Adrian of Canter- 
bury. His Saxon compositions obtained him the applause 
of his countrymen. Emboldened by their approbation, he 
aspired to higher excellence, and became the first English- 
man, as he himself informs us, who cultivated the Latin 
poetry. His reputation became so great, that even foreigners 
submitted their writings to his judgment. After having 
been abbot of Malmesbury for thirty years, he was obliged 
to quit his cell, and take upon him the bishopric of Sher- 
burn. He died in the visitation of his diocese, in the year 
709. 

Bede, who has been honoured by posterity with the title 
of " Venerable," was born in a village between the Tyne 
and the Were. Endowed with great natural talents, and 
anxious to improve thorn, he applied without intermission to 
the study of the sciences. With little other help than what 
the library of his monastery afforded him, and amidst the 



LEARNING, &C. OF THE SAXONS. 4§ 

numerous duties of the monastic institute, his ardent and 
comprehensive mind embraced every science then studied, 
and raised him to a high pre-eminence above all his con- 
temporaries. At the time of his writing the Ecclesiastical 
History of the Anglo Saxons, he informs us that he had 
devoted fifty-two years to what he considered the most 
delightful of all pursuits, his own improvement, and the 
instruction of his pupils. In the catalogue of the books 
which he had composed, and which for the most part are 
still extant, we find elementary introductions to the different 
sciences, treatises on physic, astronomy, and geography ; 
with sermons and commentaries on the Holy Scriptures. 
But of all his works, his Ecclesiastical History is the most 
celebrated ; it was received with universal approbation, and 
translated into the Saxon, by Alfred the Great, for the 
instruction of his countrymen. That it contains a faithful 
record of the times is allowed by all ; and if to those who 
wish to doubt of the truth of every miracle, the credulity of 
Bede may appear a blemish, yet his candour, sincerity, and 
piety, must please and edify every reader. Bede died a3 
he had lived, in the practice of devotion, and the prosecu- 
tion of his studies. During his last illness, he had under- 
taken an Anglo Saxon translation of the Gospel of St. John, 
and had reached the sixth chapter the evening of his death. 
One of his scholars, to whom he was dictating it, said to 
him, " Dear master, one sentence is not yet finished." 
"Then write it quickly," replied Bede. The young man 
soon after said : "It is finished." " Truly," exclaimed the 
dying saint, "it is finished. Hold my head in thy hands, 
for it is a pleasure to me to sit opposite my little oratory 
where I used to pray ; there let me invoke my Heavenly 
Father." He was placed upon the pavement of his celt, 
repeated the Gloria Patri, and expired in the sixty-second 
year of his age, 735. 

Alcuin was born at York, and educated in the famous 
school of that city, under Archbishop Egbert, brother of the 
king of North umbria, who had himself been a disciple of 
Bede. The virtue, docility, and talents of Alcuin soon 
attracted the notice, and secured the affection of his noble 
master Egbert, at his death, bequeathed to him his library, 
and chose him to succeed to the important office of teacher. 
The abilities and reputation of Alcuin added to the ancient 
reputation of the school, and students from Gaul and Ger- 
many crowded to the lectures of so renowned a master, 

5 



50 GOVERNMENT, LAWS, COMMERCE. 

He wrote for the use of his pupils treatises on most of the 
sciences; compiled the lives of several eminent persons; 
and composed several poems. He also wrote comments on 
the Holy Scriptures, from the works of the fathers. His last 
labours were employed on a subject of the highest importance 
to religion, viz. a revision of the Latin vulgate. He died at 
the abbey of St. Martin, at Tours, about the year 810. 

Among the learned of this time, we must not omit Alfred 
the Great, who was not only a scholar himself, but a great 
encourager of learned men. He founded schools on a very 
extensive plan ; and though Oxford had been a seat of learn- 
ing in more ancient times, yet that university appears to 
have been so entirely ruined in the beginning of his reign, 
that he may be justly called its father and founder. He 
usually divided his time into three portions ; one was given 
to devotion and study, another to the despatch of business, 
and a third to diet, exercise, and sleep. He made a 
considerable progress in the different studies of grammar, 
rhetoric, philosophy, architecture, and geometry; he was 
an excellent historian, understood music, and was one of the 
best Saxon poets of his time. Indeed, if we consider his 
whole life, we shall seldom find any one that has so admira- 
bly discharged all the offices of a Christian and a king. By 
his example we may learn, that no infirmity of body, no labour 
of mind, no disquietude nor dangers, can exempt us from per- 
forming our duty towards God and man. Alfred was con- 
stantly present at the divine service, and in the night, when 
others were at rest, he would repair alone to the church, to 
perform his devotions ; he superintended himself the distri- 
bution of alms, and in all these offices, behaved with such 
affability, meekness, and humility, as gained him the hearts 
of all that approached him. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Government, Laws, Commerce. 

The Saxon annals are too imperfect to delineate, with 
any precision, the prerogatives of the crown, or the privi- 
leges of the people. We know that there was a national 
assembly called Wittenagamot, viz. the Assembly of the Wise, 
whose consent was necessary to the enacting of laws. They 
generally met at the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and 



GOVERNMENT, LAWS, COMMERCE. 51 

Whitsuntide ; and if unforeseen circumstances required it, at 
other times. The constituent members were, the dignified 
clergy, the nobility, and freeholders possessed of certain 
lands. In their legislative capacity, they provided for the 
defence of the realm, the punishment or prevention of 
crimes, and the due administration of justice : as judges they 
summoned before them state criminals, decided civil contro- 
versies, and pronounced sentence of outlawry or forfeiture. 

In civil cases, the judges, after hearing the testimony of 
the witnesses, frequently decided the cause ; but if asser- 
tions were made which could not be proved by evidence, 
the party was put on his oath, and obliged to bring forward 
a certain number of freeholders, acquainted with his char- 
acter, to swear to the truth of the assertion. The value of 
an oath was according to the rank of the person. The king 
and archbishop, whose words were deemed sacred, were 
exempt from the obligation of swearing. The oath of a 
king's thane was equal to the oaths of six eaorls, the oath of 
an earldoman to those of six thanes. 

In criminal affairs, the process was somewhat different ; 
the reeve or sheriff, with the twelve oldest thanes, were 
sworn not to conceal the guilty, nor sentence the innocent. 
If the accused pleaded not guilty, he had two methods by 
which he might prove his innocence, the purgation of 
swearing, and the ordeal or judgment of God ; but, to pre- 
vent unnecessary appeals, it was provided, that if the cul- 
prit failed, he should undergo a more severe punishment for 
his impiety. In the purgation by oath, after calling God to 
witness his innocence, he produced his compurgators, who 
were from four to seventy-two, according to the custom of 
the place and greatness of the crime. If they all corrobo- 
rated his oath, he was acquitted. If he had recourse to the 
ordeal, the time was fixed by the court, and the accused 
spent three days in fasting and praying, at the end of which 
time the ordeal was prepared. In the ordeal by fire, which 
was generally used for persons of high birth, the process was 
either by walking barefooted and blindfold over nine red hot 
ploughshares, laid at unequal distances, or by holding in the 
hands a red hot iron. In the latter case, the accuser and the 
accused, each accompanied by twelve of their friends, were 
ranged in two lines opposite each other, near the fire ; a 
space equal to nine of the prisoners feet was divided into 
three parts ; near the first space was erected a stone column, 
or which was laid an iron bar, of two or three pounds,. 



52 GOVERNMENT, LAWS, COMMERCE. 

according to the enormity of the offence. Mass then begau, 
and the bar was put into the fire ; at the last collect it was 
taken out and put on the column ; the prisoner then imme- 
diately took it in his hand, stept on each of the three lines, 
and then cast it away. The priest immediately wrapped up 
the hand in a linen cloth, upon which he fixed the seal of 
the church, and opened it again in three days ; if the hand 
was perfectly healed, he was pronounced innocent ; if not, 
he underwent the punishment of his crime. For the pur- 
gation by water, a lire was kindled under a boiler in a cer- 
tain part of the church. In the boiling water was put a 
stone, or piece of iron ; then the accused advanced, and 
plunging his arm into the boiling water, took out the stone ; 
a cloth, as before, was wrapped round the arm by the cler- 
gyman, and the examination, as in the ordeal by fire, was 
resorted to.. 

With regard to the Saxon titles of rank, the first of course 
was that of Cyning, or king. The reader must have observed, 
in the succession to the throne, that respect was not always 
had to hereditary right, but in all cases, whether by descent 
or election, the approval of the wittan was necessary. lie 
had the supreme command of all the forces by sea and land. 
Appeals from every court of justice might be made to him, 
and the chief portion of the fines levied on offenders was 
paid to him \ he had also the power of pardoning and com- 
muting the punishment of death. The earldoman, sheriffs 
and judges, were appointed by him, and removable at his 
pleasure. The next title was Etheling, or son of the noble, 
which was reserved for the princes of the blood royal. After 
these, earldoman, governor or viceroy of provinces or shires, 
and sometimes styled prince aud satrap ; his duty was to 
determine law-suits, and judge criminals. This office gave 
place to the title of Rorle, or Earl,, which was Danish, and 
established by Canute. Sheriff was the deputy of the Earl- 
doman,. chosen by him, sat as judge for him, and saw sen- 
tences executed.. Thanes, viz. servants, were officers of 
the crown, whom the king recompensed with lands. The 
Thanes were succeeded by the Barons, a title brought in by 
the Normans. Ceorle (whence our word Churl) was a 
freeholder and husbandman. As such he could not be put 
in bonds, nor be liable to the ignominious punishment of 
whipping, to which slaves alone could be subjected. 

Slavery continued in England for a considerable time after 
the conversion of the Saxons. They were by far the rn^st 



ARTS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS. 5$ 

numerous class of the community, and consisted of two 
kinds, viz. household slaves, and rustic slaves, called Villani, 
or Villains, because they dwelt in the country, and performed 
the labours of cultivation. 

The criminal laws were uncommonly mild. Murder was 
compensated by money, not excepting the king's life. The 
fine for all kinds of wounds was also settled : the price of a 
limb was not the same in all parts of England ; in one county 
it might be three pounds, in another only forty shillings. In 
ancient times, our kings received neither gold nor silver 
from their tenants, but only provisions ; and this custom- was 
continued even after the Conquest. By the laws of Ina, the 
following rent was paid for ten hides of land, viz. ten casks 
of honey, three hundred loaves of bread, twelve casks of 
strong ale, thirty casks of small ale, two oxen, ten weathers, 
ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of butter, five 
salmon, one hundred eels. In some places these rents were 
paid in wheat, rye, oats, malt, flour, hogs, sheep, &c, accord- 
ing to the nature of the farm, or the custom of the country. 
But although this was the general mode, money rents were 
not altogether unknown. 

The principal exports were tin, lead, wood, hides, horses, 
and, until their entire conversion, slaves. Their great 
trading towns were London, York, Bristol, Exeter, Norwich. 
At one time, their shipping amounted to nearly three thou- 
sand. The principal coins were the silver penny, which 
contained the two hundred and fortieth part of a pound of 
silver : this was divided into the halfling, or halfpenny, and 
farthling, or farthing. The mancus contained thirty pen- 
nies, the mark one hundred and sixty, the ora sixteen, the- 
great shilling twelve, the common one five. 



CHAPTER V. 

Arts, Manners, Customs. 

Few improvements in the arts were made by the Saxons 
in England, after the first invasion of the Danes. The 
Saxon husbandmen ploughed, sowed, and harrowed their 
land ; but their ploughs were very slight, and had but one 
handle. They were unacquainted with water-mills, and 
had no better way of grinding their corn than with hand?- 

5* 



54 ARTS, MANNERS, CUSTOM'S; 

mills, which were usually turned by women. Masonry was 
restored ; and some arts connected with it introduced by St. 
Wilfrid and St. Bennet Biscop. St. Bennet brought with 
him from Gaul masons and glass-makers, who instructed the 
English in the art of making glass, which, although it had' 
been practised by the ancient Britons, had been, during the 
Saxon invasion, entirely laid aside, They were not unac- 
quainted with, the art of working in gold, silver, iron, lead, 
and jewels. A beautiful jewel of exquisite workmanship, 
was found*' at Ethelingley, in Somersetshire, where Alfred the 
Great concealed himself in his distress, and where he some- 
times resided in his prosperity ; which was certainly worn 
by that prince, and bears this inscription :. " Alfred ordered 
me to be made." 

Artificers in iron were highly regarded in those warlike 
times;, because they fabricated swords and other offensive 
arms, as well as armour. The chief smith was an officer 
of considerable dignity in the courts of the Anglo-Saxons 
and Welch kings. He sat next the domestic chaplain, 
and was entitled to a draught of every liquor brought into 
the hall. 

The Anglo-Saxons were in general tall, robust, active, 
and handsome ; inured to fatigue, and intrepid in danger ; 
extremely hospitable, but addicted to gluttony and intem- 
perance, and so attached to the detestable vice of gaming, 
that after losing their estates and effects, they often played 
away their persons and liberties. When a young noble- 
man, applied- to a father for permission to pay his addresses 
to his daughter, the parent generally made trial of his 
temper, by playing- with him at dice and chess, before he 
gave him an answer. The game of backgammon was 
invented in Wales during this period, and derives its name 
from two Welch words, back and cammon, signifying a 
little battle. 

Their childhood and: youth were spent in running, leap- 
ing, climbing, swimming, wrestling, boxing, and such exer- 
cises as hardened both soul and body, fitting them for the 
toils and dangers of war; but at the same time making them 
rude and unpolished in their address, and haughty in their 
deportment. 

Admirers of valour and intrepidity, above all other quali- 
ties, they were very anxious to discover whether their sons 
would be possessed of them, and had various methods of 
putting their courage to the trial, even in their infancy. Of. 



ARTS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS. 55 

these the following were the most common : upon a 
certain day, the family and friends being assembled, the 
father placed his infant son on the slanting side of the roof 
of his house, and there left him. If the child began to 
cry, the spectators were dejected, and prognosticated that 
he would be a coward ; but if he clung boldly to the 
thatch, and discovered no marks of fear, they were trans- 
ported with joy, and pronounced that he would prove a 
great warrior. 

As to their burials, it was so much the custom to lay the 
bodies on the surface of the ground, that a law was passed to 
oblige them to deposite them in graves of a proper depth. 
The house in which a dead body lay was a scene of con- 
tinued festivity, singing, dancing, and all kinds of diversion. 
This custom had prevailed in Pagan times, and though dis- 
couraged by the ministers of religion, was too agreeable to 
their fondness for feasting and riot to be speedily laid aside. 
The Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon language is so ancient, that 
it is impossible to trace its origin. Some of the learned 
have discovered much affinity between it and the Greek, 
both in its radical words and general structure. With this 
view they have collected a number of words, the names 
of the most necessary things, and of similar sound and 
meaning in both languages. The resemblance of the 
Anglo-Saxon and modern English is great, and many words 
of the former are still in use, though changed in their 
meaning or spelling. 



BOOK III. 



Contemporary Sovereigns during the reigns of the Danes and Saxon* 
restored. 



Benedict VIII 1012 

John XVIII 1024 

Benedict IX 1033 

Gregory VI 1-044 

Clement II 1046 

Damascus II. . . 1048 



Leo IX 1049 

Victor II 1055 

Stephen X 1057 

Nicholas II 1059 

Alexander II. . ....... 1061 



EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 



Henry II 1002 (Henry III 1039 

Conrad II 1024 1 Henry IV 1056 



EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 



Constantine X 1025 

Romanus III 1028 

Michael IV 1034 

Michael V 1041 

Constantine XI 1042 



Theodora, Empress 1054 

Michael VI 1056 

Isaac Comnenus 1057 

Constantine XIL 1059 



KINGS OF FRANCE. 



Robert II 997 

Henry 1031 



Philip 



1060 



KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

Malcolm II. 1014 [Macbeth 1040 

Duncan 1031 1 Malcolm III 1057 



CHAPTER I. 



Military History of the Danes. 

' 1017. — Canute, although in possession of the English 
crown, found himself obliged at first to make many conces- 
sions ; but as his power grew stronger, and his title became 
more secure, he gradually resumed the grants he had made. 
He put to death several English noblemen, among whom was 
the infamous Eric, who met a deserved fate for his treachery 
and other crimes ; nor was he less severe upon the subordi- 
nate ranks, levying at one time .£7*2, 000, and at another 
£15,000 upon the city of London alone, for the support of 
his army. His power being now strengthened by the weak- 



MILITARY HISTORY OF THE DANES. 57 

ness of all who had formerly possessed wealth or authority, 
be began to shew the merciful side of his character. His 
first step to reconcile the English was to send back as many 
of his followers as he could spare. He made no distinction 
in the administration of justice between his English and 
Danish subjects; and in order to unite the two nations still 
more closely, he married Emma, widow of Ethelred, and; 
sister to Richard, Duke of Normandy. 

Canute then made a voyage to Denmark, which was 
attacked by the King of Sweden. In this expedition, God- 
win, an English earl, was distinguished by his valour. In 
another voyage he attacked Norway, and annexed that king- 
dom to his dominions, and thus became the most warlike, 
and potent prince in Europe, being at once King of Eng- 
land, Denmark, and Norway. His last military preparations 
were made against Duncan, king of Scotland, who was in 
possession of Cumberland, and refused to hold it as vassal 
of Canute, alleging that that prince had not obtained it by 
hereditary descent ; but before the armies met, Duncan and 
Canute were reconciled, and the ancient conditions per- 
formed. The valour of the former part of his life, and the 
piety of the latter, were topics that filled the mouths of his 
courtiers with praise and flattery : they even pretended to 
believe his power uncontrollable, and that all things would 
obey him. Canute, sensible of their adulation, is said to 
have reproved them in the following manner. He ordered 
his chair to be put on the sea-shore while the tide was coming* 
in, and commanded it to retire ; he feigned to sit for some 
time in expectation of submission, till the waves began to 
surround him, when, turning to his. adulators, he observed 
that the title of Lord and Master of the Universe belonged 
only to him whom both earth and sea obeyed. 

Canute died at Shaftsbury, in the nineteenth year of his 
reign, leaving three sons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. 
Sweyn was crowned king of Norway, Hardicanute of Den- 
mark, and Harold succeeded to the throne of England. 

1036. — Harold, surname d Harefoot, from his swiftness 
in running, met with no small opposition from his brother 
Hardicanute ; but by the intervention of the nobles, a wit- 
tenagamot was held at Oxford, in which it was agreed, that 
Harold should have London, and all the provinces north of 
the Thames, while the possession of the southern should be 
given to Hardicanute ; and until that prince should appear 
in person, Emma, his mother, was to govern in his stead. 



58 THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 

But this agreement was of short duration ; for Emma hav- 
ing, at the request of Harold, brought over her two sons, 
Edward and Alfred, sent the latter towards London, on the 
road to which he was treacherously attacked : six hundred of 
his followers were slain, and he himself was taken prisoner, 
hurried away to Harold, and thence to the isle of Ely, 
where his eyes were put out. The unhappy prince lingered 
some days, and then expired, either by the hand of an 
assassin, or the violence of his sufferings. Emma and 
Edward, apprised of his fate, fled to the Continent, and 
Harold took possession of the whole kingdom ; but when he 
ordered Egelnorth, archbishop of Canterbury, to perform 
the ceremony of his coronation, that prelate, piicing the 
insignia of royalty upon the altar, boldly replied, "there are 
the crown and sceptre which Canute entrusted to my care ; 
to you I neither give nor refuse them ; you may take them 
if you please, but I strictly forbid any of my brethren to 
usurp an office which is the prerogative of my see." He 
appears, however, subsequently to have removed the pri- 
mate's objections, and to have been crowned with the usual 
solemnities. Harold died in 1040, little regretted by his 
subjects, leaving the crown to his brother Hardicanute. 

1040, — The ceremony of the coronation of Hardicanute 
was scarcely over, when he gave the first specimen of the 
badness of his disposition, in his impotent insults upon the 
body of his brother, which he ordered to be dug up, and 
thrown into the Thames. His next act was the imposition 
of a grievous tax for the payment of his navy ; which was 
the more intolerable, as the nation was then threatened with 
a famine. The evils of his reign, however, soon closed with 
his death, which was occasioned by excess, committed at 
the marriage of a Danish lord, celebrated at Lambeth. His 
body was interred near that of his father at Winchester. 

1042. — The Saxon Line restored. 

Edward the Confessor. — Edward the Confessor, son 
of king Ethelred, by his second wife, Emma, ascended the 
throne, to which he seemed called by his virtues. The 
English were so overjoyed at finding the ancient race of 
their kings restored, that the warmth of their raptures was 
at first attended with some violence against the Danes ; but 
Edward, by the mildness of his manners, soon composed 
these differences, and the distinction between the two nations 



THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 59 

gradually disappeared. At his accession he found three 
chieftains, Godwin, Siward, and Leofrick, so powerful, that 
his only security lay in their mutual jealousies, and discord- 
ant interests ; and it was to this mistrust of each other he 
was principally indebted for the zeal they showed for his 
advancement to the throne. By their aid the Danish fami- 
lies, whose former tyranny deserved punishment, or whose 
power was to be dreaded, were expelled the kingdom 
Among these may be reckoned Gelinda, niece of Canute, 
i who was sent to Denmark, that she might not favour the 
invasion threatened by the king of Norway. The queen- 
mother, who had many crimes laid to her charge, and who 
had always shewn her predilection for the Danes, and dis- 
i like to the king, was stript of her treasures and confined to 
i the city of Winchester, where she died. In the mean time 
the king of Denmark made an irruption into Norway, which 
obliged Sweyn to lay aside his expedition against Edward. 
In 1044 some Danish pirates landed at Sandwich, but the 
vigilance of Godwin, Leofrick, and Siward, obliged them to 
leave the island, and they never afterwards returned. 

As the kingdom now enjoyed a profound peace, his nobles 
and subjects importuned Edward to take a royal consort, 
and he fixed upon Edgitha, daughter of Earl Godwin, to 
whose assistance he in a great measure owed his throne. 
Edgitha was a lady of mild and virtuous manners, highly 
| accomplished, and of great beauty. Edward made choice 
I of her in the hope that he could easily engage her to become 
(his wife, upon the condition of living together in a state of 
virginity, as he had long before consecrated himself to God 
by a vow of perpetual chastity. She readily consented to 
his pious desire ; and though married, they lived together as 
brother and sister. The year 1053 is remarkable for the 
death of the powerful Earl of Godwin. It is related, that 
while he was with the king at a feast, observing a domestic 
who had slipped with one foot support himself with the 
other, he said, "See how one brother assists another!" 
Yes," replied the king, regarding Godwin with a severe 
countenance, " and if Alfred were now alive, he might also 
assist me." Godwin, who felt that he was suspected of con- 
triving the death of Alfred, protested his innocence, and 
wished that if he were guilty, he might not swallow the 
morsel of meat which he was putting into his mouth. No 
sooner did he attempt it than, sticking in his throat, it suffo- 
cated him, and he fell down dead. 



(fa ThLE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 

In 1054 Edward sent Siward against Macbeth, who had 
usurped the throne of Scotland. Siward entirely defeated 
him, and restored Malcolm to his kingdom ; not, however, 
without the loss of many brave men, among whom was his 
own son. Upon being informed of his death, he inquired 
whether he had received his wound before or behind, and 
upon being told he fell fighting valiantly, and was wounded 
before, he exclaimed, " I could not wish a more glorious 
death for myself or my son !" 

The Welsh had made inroads into England, under thei 
king Griffin, and had plundered Hereford. Harold, son of 
Godwin, was sent against them, defeated them, and havim 
burned their ships, and reduced their army to the utmos 
extremity, he compelled them to surrender, pay tribute, an( 
entirely renounce their king. 

Edward had now reigned twenty-four years, when he 
was seized with a fatal sickness, during the dedication of 
the church of Westminster. In his last moments, seeing 
his nobles all bathed in tears around his bed, and his queei 
weeping and sobbing vehemently, he said to her tenderly 
" Weep not, my dear daughter, I shall not die, but live." 
Then commending her to her brother Harold, he calmly 
expired on the fifth of January, 1066, in the 64th year of 
his age. The title of Confessor was bestowed upon him 
about a century after his death, by a bull of canonization, 
issued by Pope Alexander the third. 

1066. Harold. — As Edward died without issue, the 
crown was claimed by three competitors : Edgar Etheling 
asserted his right, as being grandson to Edmund Ironside ; 
William Duke of Normandy claimed the throne on the 
ground of an alleged promise from king Edward, and his 
affinity by his mother Emma ; and Harold, son of Earl God- 
win, who could show no right of descent, alleged the inten- 
tion of the late king in his favour. The citizens of London, 
who were fund of an elective monarchy, seconded his 
claims ; many of the clergy also adopted his cause ; and the 
body of the people, whose favourite he was, eagerly sup- 
ported his pretensions. Taking, therefore, advantage of his 
power, he caused himself to be proclaimed king. 

The first acts of his reign shewed him not unworthy of 
their esteem; he administered justice with impartiality, and 
the disturbers of the public peace, whom the lenity of 
Edward had suffered to exist, were sought out and pun- 
ished. But neither his valour nor his justice could secure 



THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 61 

him from the effects of an ill-grounded title. His first 
enemy was his own brother Tosti, who had long borne an 
implacable hatred to him for the part he took in his punish- 
ment, when governor of Northumbria. Encouraged and 
assisted by William of Normandy, Tosti made a descent 
upon the coast. Having failed here, he sailed to Norway, 
-and procuring reinforcements, landed at the mouth of the 
Humber, defeated the earls of Mercia and Northumberland, 
and took the city of York. Harold lost no time ; he over- 
took the enemy at Stamford, and immediately gave him 
battle, notwithstanding his advantageous position, and after 
a bloody conflict entirely defeated him. Tosti and Harfar- 
gor, king of Norw T ay, were among the slain. Those that 
escaped owed their safety to the personal prowess of a brave 
Norwegian, who is said to have defended a bridge over the 
Derwent for three hours, against the whole English army, 
during which time he slew forty of their best men with his 
battle-axe, till at length he was slain by an arrow. Harold 
had not long enjoyed this triumph, when news arrived of a 
fresh invasion by William Duke of Normandy, who landed 
at Hastings in 1066, with an army of 60,000 veteran troops. 
William as he came on shore, happening to stumble and 
fall, cried out, with great presence of mind, " England is 
mine : I take possession of it with both hands." William's 
arrival was accompanied with some of those fortunate cir- 
cumstances which usually attend conquest. Harold who 
had expected him all the summer, was then absent in the 
north, where he had not only weakened his forces by the 
bloody encounters just mentioned, but also disgusted his 
army by retaining the Norwegian spoils. Without allowing 
time to assemble his troops, or consult in so momentous an 
affair, with a slender force he hastened to meet the Nor- 
mans. The day before the battle. William sent a challenge 
to Harold, to decide the quarrel between them by single 
combat ; but Harold refused, saying he would leave it to the 
God of armies to determine. The next day both parties pre- 
pared for battle. The English are said to have passed the 
night in singing and drinking; the Normans, in confessing 
their sins and receiving the holy communion. The day 
being come which was to decide the fate of the nation, the 
English were drawn up in a close body, armed with their 
battle-axes and shields. Near the standard stood the king 
with his two brothers, that the soldiers, seeing the share 
he took in the common danger, might be emboldened by 

6 



62 THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 

his example. The centre of the Normans was composed of 
infantry, flanked on each side by their cavalry. The fight 
began by a shower of arrows from the Norman cross-bows, 
a weapon unknown to the English, and which, acting at a 
great distance, surprised and galled them exceedingly. But 
soon coming to close fight, the English with their bills hewed 
down the enemy with dreadful slaughter ; while their own 
ranks were so close and firm, that no charges of the Norman 
horse could break them, though led by the Duke in person, 
who had three horses killed under him in the attempt. Per- 
ceiving their impenetrable bravery, he had recourse to 
stratagem ; he pretended to give way, upon which the 
English, led on by their impetuous courage, began a pursuit, 
which disordered their ranks. Then the Normans, returning 
to the charge with increased fury, broke their ranks, and 
drove them to a rising ground. In this extremity Harold 
was seen flying from rank to rank, rallying and inspiring his 
men with fresh vigour ; and though he had toiled all day on 
foot in front of his Kentish men, he still showed unabated 
force and courage. Again, therefore, victory seemed to 
declare against the Normans, and they fell in great numbers. 
Thus raged the battle with alternate success, from nine in 
the morning till dark, when Harold, making a furious onset 
at the head of his troops, was shot in the brain by an arrow, 
and his two brothers, fighting valiantly by his side, shared 
his fate. He fell, sword in hand, among heaps of slain, and, 
after the battle, could scarcely be distinguished among the 
dead. The English no sooner saw the king fall, than, loos- 
ing all courage, they fled on every side, and were pursued, 
with great slaughter, by the Normans. About 15,000 Nor- 
mans were slain, but a much greater number of the English 
fell on that fatal day. Thus ended the empire of the Sax- 
ons in this nation, after it had continued more than six hun- 
dred years. And here we may pause to observe, that the 
English were, in fact, the cause of their own disgrace and 
miseries ; for besides the late mismanagement of Harold, the 
nobility were split into factions, addicted to gluttony and a 
dissolute life, and neglectful of the duties of religion ; whilst 
the lower classes of society spent their time in rioting and 
drunkenness, and all those vices which enervate both body 
and mind. . Even among the clergy and religious were some 
who, neglecting the duties of their calling, and the rules of 
their order, increased the evil by the scandal they gave. 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, LAWS, &c. 63 

CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Affairs, Laws, Sfc. 

Canute was most munificent to the clergy and religi- 
ous. He founded many noble monasteries, and, in order to 
fulfil a vow he had made, he went on a pilgrimage to Rome, 
where he was kindly received by Pope John, who remitted 
in favour of the English and Danes the taxes usually paid 
by strangers that travelled to Rome. He also procured sev- 
eral grievances to be redressed concerning the pall, that was 
usually sent to the archbishops ; the officers of the Pope hav- 
ing been very exorbitant in their fees upon such occasions. 

The reign of Edward the Confessor was highly favourable 
to the cause of religion. He delighted much in religious 
foundations ; but never, under pretence of raising those 
structures, exacted taxes from his people : the expenses 
were defrayed from his own patrimony ; and his great alms 
and pious liberality shewed what could be done by economy 
and the retrenchment of superfluities. During his exile in 
Normandy, he had made a vow, that if Providence should 
free him from his troubles, he would go on a pilgrimage to 
Rome : this vow he now was anxious to perform ; but upon 
stating his intention to his council, they were unanimously 
of opinion that his absence would be attended with fatal 
effects to the peace and welfare of his kingdom. The mat- 
ter was referred to Pope Leo the eleventh, Who, judging it 
would be highly imprudent in the king to leave England, 
freed him from his vow, on condition that he should distri- 
bute in alms a sum equivalent to the expenses of the jour- 
ney, and also that he should build a monastery or church in 
honour of St. Peter. Immediately on receiving the Pope's 
brief, the hoty king commenced the work, and, fixing upon 
a spot to the west of London, erected that noble structure 
Westminster Abbey, which, when finished, was solemnly 
dedicated to St. Peter, on the feast of St. John the Evangelist, 
in 1065, a few days before his death. 

The laws of Edward the Confessor have long had a great 
and a deserved reputation. They were the fruit of his 
wisdom and anxious wishes for the good of his people. 
Under the Saxon heptarchy, Ethelbert, the first Christian 
king of Kent, published laws for his kingdom in 602. Ina, 



Si CHARACTER, &c. OF THE DANES. 

in 693, did the same for Wessex ; and Offa, about 790, to* 
the Mercians. From these laws, Alfred formed a new 
and short code in 877. Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, and 
Ethelred also made laws, and Canute added others ; but to 
Edward the Confessor we are chiefly indebted for reducing 
the whole of these laws into one body, with amendments 
and additions, which code from this time became common 
to all England, under the title of Edward the Confessor's 
laws, to distinguish them from those of William the Con- 
queror. They are still in force as part of the common law 
of England, unless where altered by later statutes. They 
consisted of short positive precepts, in which the judges 
kept to the letter, and sufFered them not to be reasoned 
away by advocates or pleaders. Punishments were mild, 
few crimes were capital, and fines and penalties certain, and 
not left to the will and pleasure of the judge. The public 
peace and tranquillity were maintained, and private property 
respected, not by the rigour of the laws, but by the diligence 
and impartiality with which they were administered. 

The trials by ordeal still continued in force, though seldom 
resorted to : instead of plunging the arm into boiling w T ater, 
the person accused was sometimes thrown into a pond or 
river; if he floated without any action of swimming he 
was adjudged guilty. These methods of trial, the relics of 
heathenish superstition, were frequently condemned by the 
Church as tempting God's providence, and contrary to his 
law and the precept of charity. The first legal prohibition 
of them in England was in the third year of Henry III., by 
act of parliament, or order in council. 

Character, 8fc. of the Danes. 

The Danes, who during this period constituted so great a 
portion of the inhabitants, were as bold and intrepid as the 
Saxons, and even surpassed them in fierceness and cruelty. 
In those ages the people of Scandinavia, comprehending 
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, breathed nothing but war, 
and were instigated by a most astonishing spirit of enter- 
prise and adventure. By their numerous fleets, they rode 
triumphant in all the European seas ; carrying terror and 
desolation along the coasts of Germany, France, Spain, Italy, 
England, Scotland, and Ireland. The inhabitants of these 
countries, especially of the sea coasts, lived in continual 
apprehension of these dreadful enemies, and made it their 
daily prayer to be preserved from their destructive visits. 



THE NORMAN LINE. 65 

Born In fleets or camps, the first objects on which they fixed 
their eyes were storms, arms, battles, blood, and plunder. 
Amidst these they were brought up, till, by degrees, the 
most dreadful objects became familiar to them. As soon as 
they could lisp, they were taught to sing the plundering 
exploits and victories of their ancestors. Their memories 
were stored with nothing but tales of warlike and piratical 
expeditions, of cities reduced to ashes, and provinces deso- 
lated. It was one of their martial, though boasted proverbs, 
that a Dane who wished to be accounted brave, should 
attack two enemies, stand firm against three, retire only one 
pace from four, and flee from no fewer than five. 



BOOK IY. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns* 

POPES. 

Alexander II 10611 Victor III 1086: 

Gregory VII 1073 J 

EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 



Nicephorus 1078 

Alexis 1081 



Constantine XII 1059 

Romanus IV 1068 

Michael VII 1071 

EMPEROR OF THE WEST. 

Henry IV 105& 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Philip 1060 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Alphonso VI. of Leon .... 1065 | Sancho II. of Castile .... 1065 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

Malcolm III 1059 | Donald VIII 1680 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NORMAN LINE. 

Military History, from William the Conqueror to the resto- 
ration of the Saxon Line by Henry II. , including a period 
of about eighty-eight years- 

Nothing could exceed the astonishment of the English 
when made acquainted with the battle of Hastings. William.'* 
6* 



60 THE NORMAN LIKE. 

approach to the capital increased the alarm, and the divi- 
sions which began to appear in their councils. The superior- 
clergy inclined to his side, and the bull of the Pope, from 
whom he had received a consecrated banner, was now 
openly offered as a reason for general submission. Other 
causes rendered it difficult for the people to defend their 
liberties in this critical emergency. The body of the nation 
had lost its ancient pride* and independent spirit by their 
recent subjection to the Danes, and deemed the disgrace 
and humiliation of admitting the pretension of William less 
to be dreaded than the bloodshed and rapine of war. A 
repulse which a party of Londoners received from five hun- 
dred Norman horse, renewed the terror of the great defeat 
at Hastings ; the easy submission of Kent was an additional 
discouragement, and the burning of Southwark made the 
citizens of London dread a like fate for their capital. The 
attention, therefore, of all, was now turned to their own 
preservation. The bishops, the nobles, with Edgar Atheling, 
the natural heir to the crown, waited upon the Conqueror, 
and declared their intention of yielding to his authority. 
William, was accordingly crowned in Westminster Abbey, 
by Eldred, Archbishop of York; Stigand, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, being equally in disgrace with the Pope and the 
monarch. The coronation oath was much the same as that 
taken by the Saxon kings, viz. that he would protect the 
holy Church and its governors; that he would rule the peo- 
ple subject to him prudently and justly, would ordain and 
keep just laws, and wholly forbid all rapines and unjust judg- 
ments. 5 ' William had till now been called " the Bastard ;" 
from this period he took the name of " Conqueror," a term 
which, in the language of those times, did not necessarily 
include the idea of conquest, but was employed indifferently 
to designate any one who had asserted and obtained his 
light. 

His first measures were wisely adapted to allay the 
animosity and acquire the esteem of the English : he con- 
firmed the liberties and immunities of London, and of all the 
other cities of the empire. In his whole administration, he 
bore the resemblance of the lawful prince, and not of the 
conqueror ; so that the English began to flatter themselves 
that they had only changed the succession of their sovereign, 
without injury to their former government. But William, not- 
withstanding this seeming confidence and friendship which. 
\& expressed for his English subjects, took care to place all 



TUR NORMAN LINE. 67 

real power in the hands of the Normans. He every where 
disarmed the inhabitants ; built fortresses in all the principal 
cities, where he quartered Norman soldiers, and bestowed the 
forfeited estates upon his captains. 

To one of his favourites he gave the county of Chester, 
which he erected into a palatinate, and rendered by his grant 
almost independent of the crown. Having thus firmly estab- 
lished his power, he ventured to visit his native country, 
within six months after he had left it. He was careful, how- 
ever, to take with him the most powerful among the clergy 
and nobles, as well to secure himself from any attempts, 
which might be made during his absence, as to show, by the 
quality and magnificence of his attendants, the greatness and 
importance of the conquest he had achieved. Pictaviensis 
the historian, speaking of the riches brought from England, 
says, "that country greatly exceeds the Gauls in the abun- 
dance of its precious metals. If it be termed for its fertility 
the granary of Ceres, it may be called the treasury of Arabia 
for its riches. The English women excel all others in 
the use of the needle, and embroidery of gold and silver : 
the men in all sorts of elegant workmanship. Merchants 
import among them the most noble productions of foreign 
manufactures, and the best artists of Germany reside there." 
Indeed, the superiority of English manufactures was so gen- 
erally acknowledged, that delicate articles in embroidery, or 
the precious metals, were called by the continental nations 
" English work." 

In the mean time the English were so grievously oppress- 
ed by the Norman barons, that, concerting with the Earl of 
Boulogne, they attacked Dover Castle ; but a panic seized 
the soldiers, the Earl of Boulogne was obliged to seek his 
safety in flight, most of his men were taken, and the English 
only escaped through their more perfect knowledge of the 
roads. About the same time Edric, surnamed the Outlaw, 
with the assistance of the Welch, ravaged several parts of 
Herefordshire. These transactions hastened the return of the 
king, and he came with the secret determination to crush by 
severity a people he could not gain by lenity. Several noble- 
men, foreseeing the storm, withdrew with Edgar Atheling 
and his sister into Scotland, to the court of Malcolm, who 
shortly after married that princess. By her offspring the Saxon 
line was restored to the throne of England in the person of 
Henry the Second. 

Insurrections now appeared in every part of the country. 



68 THE NORMAN LINE". 

which answered no other purpose but to rivet more firmly the 
chains of the English. Acquainted with the restless spirit of 
the Northumbrians, who had begun the revolt, and deter- 
mined to incapacitate them from ever more molesting him, 
William issued orders for laying waste that fertile country. 
Their houses were reduced to ashes, the cattle seized and 
driven away, the implements of husbandry were destroyed, 
and the inhabitants compelled either to seek subsistence in the 
northern parts of Scotland, or to perish miserably in the woods 
from cold and hunger. The lives of a hundred thousand 
persons are computed to have been sacrificed to this barbarous 
policy. But William was now determined to proceed to ex- 
tremities with the English, and to reduce them to a condition 
in which they should no longer be formidable to him. Ancient 
and honourable families were reduced to beggary ; the nobles 
were treated with contempt, and their estates divided among 
the new comers. He even entertained the difficult project 
of totally abolishing the language of the country. He ordered 
the English youth to be instructed in the Norman language : 
the pleadings in the supreme courts of judicature, deeds and 
laws, were in the same language. No other was used at 
court, and it became the language of all fashionable societies. 
To this attempt of the conqueror, and to the foreign domin- 
ions annexed for so long a time to the crown of England, we 
owe the predominant mixture of French in our language. In 
short, nothing was left untried that had a tendency to oblit- 
erate every trace of the Anglo-Saxon constitution. 

Having crushed different conspiracies, and, by punishing 
severely the malcontents, secured his dominions, William now 
expected to reap the fruits of his toils, and hoped that the re- 
mainder of his reign would be crowned with peace and pros- 
perity. But how vain is all human wisdom! he found ene- 
mies where he least expected them, and such as embittered 
all the latter part of his life. He had three sons, l*obert,. 
William, and Henry. Robert, the eldest, was a prince of 
great bravery, but imprudent. William and Henry, more 
insinuating in their manners, had gained the affection of 
their father, of which Robert had been heard to express his 
jealousy. A mind so prepared for resentment, soon found or 
made a cause for an open rupture. The two princes were 
one day in sport together, and wantonly threw water over 
their elder brother, as he passed. Robert, all alive to sus- 
picion, immediately construed this into a studied indignity, 
and drawing his sword, ran up stairs to take revenge. The 



THE NORMAN LINE. 69 

whole castle was quickly in a tumult ; and it was with some 
difficulty that the king himself could appease it ; but he could 
not extinguish the animosity which ever after prevailed in his 
family. Robert, that very night, withdrew to Rouen, hoping 
to surprise the castle ; but he was defeated in his design by 
the governor. The popular character of the prince, how- 
ever, and a sympathy of manners, engaged all the young 
nobility in his favour, and this unnatural contest continued 
for several years, during which several battles were fought. 
In one of these Robert encountered his father, without know- 
ing him, and not only wounded him in the arm, but dismount- 
ed him. William immediately called for a horse, when 
Robert, hearing his father's voice, instantly alighted, and fall- 
ing at his feet, begged pardon for what he had done : then, 
mounting him upon his own horse, he led him in safety out 
of the throng. This uncommon occurrence brought both par- 
ties to an accommodation; and peace being concluded, Robert 
returned to England with his father, but could never entirely 
regain his favour. 

William had scarcely put an end to these disturbances, 
when he felt a very severe blow in the death of Matilda his 
queen ; and soon after he received intelligence of a general 
insurrection in Maine. Upon his arrival on the continent, 
he found the insurgents had been secretly assisted by the 
king of France, and his displeasure was not a little increased 
by the account of the sarcasm which that monarch had thrown 
out against him. William, who was become very corpulent, 
had been detained in bed some days by sickness ; and Philip 
was heard to say, "That his brother of England was gone to 
lie in of his great belly, and he feared he should be obliged 
to put up lights at his uprising;" alluding to the custom of 
France in those days. This so provoked William, that he 
sent him word, " That as soon as he was risen, he would save 
the charge of lights, by going himself, to light a thousand 
fires in the very bowels of France." In order to perform his 
promise he levied a strong army, and entering the isle of 
France, destroyed and burned villages and houses without 
opposition, not even sparing the churches and monasteries. 
But. as a visible punishment for his ungovernable revenge and 
cruelty, his horse chancing to place his foot upon some hot 
ashes, plunged so violently, that his rider was thrown with his 
belly upon the pommel of the saddle, and bruised to such a 
degree, that he suffered a relapse, of which he shortly died, 
near Rouen, on the 9th of September 1087. 



70 THE NORMAN LINE. 

William must certainly be reckoned among the greatest 
captains of his age. Impetuous and quick in his enter- 
prises, he was cool, deliberate, and indefatigable in times 
of danger. His height of body and strength were, accord- 
ing to the Norman writers, most astonishing : it is said that, 
sitting on horseback, he could draw the string of a bow that 
no other man could bend on foot. He was extremely fond 
of hunting ; and though possessed of no fewer than sixty- 
eight forests and chases, he scrupled not to expel the unfor- 
tunate inhabitants of a large track of more than thirty 
square miles, which he converted into a wilderness for his 
deer, burning houses, churches, and monasteries. In his 
conversation he w r as seldom aiFablc, except to Lanfranc, 
archbishop of Canterbury, with whom he was ever gentle 
and mild. In fine, he rendered himself odious to many, 
formidable to all ; but by his policy he transmitted his power 
to his posterity, who still occupy the throne. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Victor III 1086 1 Pascal II 1099 

Urban II 1088 I 

EMPEROR OF THE EAST. 

Alexis 1081 

EMPEROR OF THE WEST. 

Henry IV 1056 

XIXG OF FRAXCE. 

Philip 1060 

K1XG OF SCOTLAXn. 

Donald VIII 1068 

KING OF SPAIX. 

Alphonso VI 1065 



William II. 

William, surnamed Rufus, or Red, from the colour of 
his hair, was appointed by the king's will his successor, 
whilst the eldest son, Robert, was to have Normandy. The 
Norman barons, however, were by no means pleased with 



THE NORMAN LINE. 7l 

this arrangement ; they wished for a union of the whole, 
and regarded Robert as the rightful heir. A powerful con- 
spiracy was formed, at the head of which was Otho, the 
late king's brother. Otho wrote to Robert, urging him to 
use the utmost despatch. Robert gave the most positive 
assurances of a speedy arrival ; but his indolence and love 
of pleasure were greater than his ambition. Instead of 
employing the money sent him in levies to support his 
friends, he lavished it upon unworthy favourites, procrasti- 
nating his departure till the opportunity was lost. William, 
on the other side, exerted himself with amazing activity, so 
that the conspirators, despairing of any assistance from 
Robert, threw themselves upon the king's mercy, who 
spared their lives, but confiscated their property and banished 
them the kingdom. 

Normandy at this period presented nothing but a scene 
of confusion. The barons had expelled the troops which 
William the Conqueror had put into their castles, and levying 
men, made war on each other, which the feeble govern- 
ment of Robert, who was immersed in his pleasures, was 
unable to resist. William, who never lost sight of the pos- 
session of Normandy, seized the opportunity, and by bribes, 
judiciously distributed, obtained possession of almost every 
fortress on the right bank of the Seine. He then crossed with 
a numerous army into Normandy ; but the barons effected 
a reconciliation, and a treaty of peace between the two 
brothers was concluded ; one of the articles of which was, 
that if either of the brothers should die without issue, the 
survivor should inherit all his dominions. It was in vain 
that Henry remonstrated against this act of injustice, and 
even took up arms to defend a small fortress on the coast of 
Normandy against their united assaults ; he was obliged to 
surrender, and wandered about for some years in the greatest 
distress. 

At the siege of this fortress, two circumstances took place 
that mark the character of the brothers. As William was 
riding out at some distance from the camp, he perceived two 
horsemen from the castle coining to attack him. At the 
first encounter the king's horse was killed, and overthrew its 
rider. His antagonist with uplifted arm immediatley ran to 
despatch him, when William cried out, " Hold, villain, I am 
the King of England." The two soldiers, seized with awe, 
assisted him to rise, and presented one of their horses. The 
king, springing upon the saddle, asked who was the man 



7-2 THE NORMAN LINE. 

that dismounted him ? upon which the soldier boldly shewed 
himself; when the king ordered him to follow, and took 
him into his service. In the mean time, Henry, being 
much distressed for want of water, sent a messenger to 
Robert, desiring that they would endeavour to subdue him 
by force of arms, rather than by thirst. Robert immediately 
gave him liberty to supply himself; and when William 
blamed his generosity, he replied, "What! shall I suffer my 
brother to die of thirst ? where shall we find another, when 
he is gone?" 

In the mean time, Malcolm of Scotland, taking advantage 
of William's absence, crossed the borders, and laid waste 
the northern counties. William, immediately after his 
reconciliation with Robert, was determined to revenge the 
aggression. He assembled an army, with which he pene- 
trated into Scotland ; but on Malcolm's submitting to do 
homage for his kingdom, peace was concluded. But a new 
quarrel arose between the two kings : Malcolm again with 
his troops burst into Northumberland, where he was totally 
defeated, himself and his son being left dead on the field 
of battle. What pretexts William made for not observing 
the treaty with Robert we are not informed ; but war again 
being renewed, William had recourse to his usual method of 
bribery, and his mode of raising the money strongly marks 
his character. When the men he had demanded from Eng- 
land were drawn up on the shore, ready to embark, each 
soldier was ordered to pay ten shillings to the king, and 
return to his home. 

But these petty broils were now to be eclipsed by the 
commencement of the most extraordinary enterprise recorded 
in the annals of nations, — the crusades. Peter the hermit, a 
native of Amiens, of a most enterprising mind and warm 
imagination, had made a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre at 
Jerusalem. He could not behold without indignation the 
cruel manner in which the Christians were treated by the 
Turks ; and, upon his return, formed the bold design of 
freeing the Holy Land from the Mahometan yoke. He pro- 
posed his views to the Pope, who permitted, rather than 
assisted, the design. Peter now resolved to preach the 
crusade ; he travelled through all Christendom, exciting the 
princes and people to the recovery of the Holy Land ; and 
such was the efFect of the enthusiasm, that men of all ranks 
flew to arms. Robert, eager for glory, and prone to change, 



THE NORMAN LINE. 73 

I was one of the foremost in the undertaking ; and in order to 
supply money to defray the neccessary expenses, mort- 
, gaged his dukedom to William. The sum, which amounted 
; to no more than 10,000 marks, was readily promised by 
I William ; and the means he took to provide it were, by lay- 
ing a heavy contribution upon the bishops, abbots, &c, who 
were even obliged to break in pieces their gold and silver 
I plate and the ornaments of their churches to furnish the 
I sum required. In this manner was Normandy again united 
to England ; and from this union arose those numerous 
[wars with France, which for centuries depopulated both 
< countries. 

The Normans received William without opposition ; but 

the people of Le Maine chose Helie, the nephew of their 

j late earl, and by their aid Helie surprised the city of Mons. 

t Upon this news being brought to William, while hunting in 

the New Forest, he could hardly restrain his rage; but 

j exclaiming, " Let those who love me, follow," he rode 

t immediately to the sea shore, and entered the first vessel 

j he found. The weather being extremely boisterous, the 

master remonstrated upon the danger of the passage ; but 

i William cried out, "Be silent and obey: Kings are never 

l drowned." Upon his landing, he advanced with such 

rapidity, that Helie with difficulty saved himself by 

flight. The king ravaged the country, and then returned 

to England. 

An accident, however, now put an end to all William's 
i ambitious projects : while hunting in the New Forest, 
Hampshire, to form which so many towns and villages had 
been depopulated, he was killed by an arrow, discharged, 
as it was said, by Sir Walter Tyrrel at a deer, which glanc- 
ing from a tree, struck the monarch to the heart. Sir 
Walter, terrified at the accident, clapped spurs to his horse, 
embarked for France, and joined the crusade. As Sir 
Walter, however, denied the charge, and on his return 
made oath that he had not on that day entered the forest, 
it is more probable the king met his death by treason. The 
body was conveyed in a cart to Winchester, and privately 
interred the next morning in the cathedral. William in his 
person was short and corpulent, light hair, and florid com- 
plexion. In public he assumed a haughty and fierce 
demeanour ; in private he was gay, witty, and licentious, 
seeking to lessen the odium of his impiety, rapacity, and 
tyranny, by making them subjects of laughter. 

7 






74 THE NORMAN LINE. 

Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Pascal II 1099|Honorius II 1124 

Galatius II 1118 Innocent II 1130 

Calixtus n 1119lCelestine II 1134 

EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 

Alexis 1081 |John Comnenus 1118 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 

Henry IV 1056 I Lotharius 1125 

Henry V 11081 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Philip 1060| Lewis VI 1108 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

Donald VIII 10681 Alexander 1117 

Edgar 1108 1 David 1124 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Alphonso VI 1065 I Alphonso VIII 1126 

Alphonso VII 11091 



1100. Henry I. 

Upon the sudden death of William Rufus, Henry, sur- 
named Beauclerc, his younger brother, found an easy access 
to the throne in consequence of Robert's absence with the 
crusaders. Hastening to Winchester, he secured the royal 
treasures, and the barons and people immediately submitted 
to a claim they were unable to resist. Henry was no sooner 
seated on the throne, than he expelled from court all the 
ministers of his brother's debauchery ; and reflecting that 
the English still preserved the memory of their Saxon 
kings with gratitude, he determined to strengthen his power 
by marrying Matilda, niece of Edgar Atheling. This prin- 
cess had been bred up in a convent, and wore the veil, 
which was not unusual with ladies in those times, to preserve 
themselves from the brutal ferocity of the Normans. TImF 
marriage was solemnized, to the great joy of the whole i 
nation, on the feast of St. Michael. 

At this juncture Robert returned from the crusade, and 
after taking possession of his mortgaged estates, laid claim 
to the crown of England. Solely bent, however, upon his g 



THE NORMAN LINE. 75 

pleasure, and averse from business, he was easily induced 
to resign all his pretensions, upon payment of a stipulated 
sum of money. This disposition soon brought upon him 
fresh troubles ; he suffered himself to be continually pillaged 
by his servants, whilst his subjects, under the command of 
petty and rapacious tyrants, were plundered without mercy, 
till the whole country became a scene of violence and dep- 
redation. In this miserable exigence the Normans had 
recourse to Henry, who very readily promised to redress their 
grievances. Accordingly he landed in Normandy with a 
strong army, and, in a battle which ensued, overthrew 
Robert's forces, and took him prisoner. Normandy was 
quickly reduced, and Robert never after recovered his liberty. 
He died twenty years after his capture, at CardifTe Castle, 
Glamorganshire. Henry was next engaged in a bloody, 
though successful, war with France. During one of the bat- 
tles the king was engaged, hand to hand, with one Crispin, 
who wounded him through his helmet : this so added to his 
fury, that summoning all his strength, he with one blow over- 
threw both horse and rider ; on this his soldiers renewed the 
fight with redoubled vigour, and gained a complete victory. 
Fortune now appeared to promise Henry a happy reign ; he 
was in peaceable possession of two powerful states, had a son 
acknowledged undisputed heir to the throne, and a daughter, 
named Matilda, married to the Emperor, Henry V. of Ger- 
many. All his prospects were, however, clouded by unfore- 
seen misfortunes, which deeply tinged his remaining years 
with misery. On his return from Normandy, where he had 
taken his son to receive the homage of the barons, the cap- 
tain and crew of the vessel which carried the prince became 
so intoxicated that they ran the ship upon a rock, where it 
was dashed to pieces. The prince was put into a boat, and 
might have escaped had he not been called back by the cries 
of Alaude, his natural sister. Unable to leave in distress one 
so dear to him, he ordered the sailors to row him back; but 
on the approach of the boat, numbers who had been left on 
the wreck leaped into it, and the whole went to the bottom. 
Above one hundred noblemen were lost. A butcher of 
(Rouen alone escaped; he clung to the mast, and was taken 
up next morning by some fishermen. Fitzstephen, the cap- 
tain, seeing the butcher struggling with the waves, swam up 
to him, and inquired whether the prince was yet living; 
hen learning that he had perished, he cried out, " I will 



76 TH E NORMAN LINE. 

not survive him," and immediately sunk to rise no more. 
The shrieks of these unfortunate people reached the shore, 
and were even heard in the king's ship ; but the cause was 
then unknown. During three days Henry cherished the 
hope that his son had put into some distant port of England : 
but when certain intelligence of the disaster reached him he 
fainted away, and from that moment he was never seen to 
smile. He died some time after of a surfeit, by eating too 
freely of lampreys, a dish he was extremely fond of. He 
was interred in the abbey of Reading, on Christmas day, 
1135, leaving the succession to his daughter Matilda. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 



Anastatius IV 1153 

Adrian IV 1154 



Celestine II 1143 

Lucius II 1144 

Eugenius III 1145 

EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 

John Comnenus 1 1 18 1 Emanuel Comnenus 1143 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 

Lothaire II 1125 (Frederick 1152 

Conrad III 11281 

KIXGS OF FRANCE. 

Lewis VI 1108 1 Lewis VII 1137 

KINO OF SCOTLANn. 

David 1124 

KINO OF SPAIX. 

Alphonso VIII 1126 



1135. Stephen. 

No sooner was the king's death known to Stephen, son of 
Adela, Henry's sister, than he hastened from Normandy, 
and was immediately saluted king by the populace. His 
next step was to gain the clergy and nobility ; and for that 
purpose his brother, the bishop of Winchester, exerted all 
his influence, and with no little success. Stephen, in the 
mean time, seizing the vast treasures of his uncle, to the 



9Ut 



TirE NORMAN LINE. 77 

amount of 100,000 marks and upwards, besides plate and 
jewels, prepared to meet Matilda, who had landed upon the 
coast of Sussex. Upon his approach she shut herself up in 
Arundel Castle, where she was protected by the Queen Dow- 
ager, who secretly favoured her pretensions. This fortress 
would soon have fallen, had it not been represented to the 
king, that to take a castle by force which belonged to the 
Queen Dowager would be an infringement of the respect due 
to her dignity. Stephen, w T ith a generosity which occasion- 
ally mixed itself with the rudeness of those times, suffered 
her to depart in safety. He, however, had soon reason to re- 
pent of his gallantry, for in a battle fought soon after, Stephen 
was taken prisoner, after giving most amazing proofs of per- 
sonal bravery. Matilda, upon this success, was crowned at 
Winchester, with all imaginable solemnity. She was, how- 
ever, no ways fit for governing the kingdom. She treated 
the barons with a haughtiness and disdain to which they had 
not been accustomed, so that they began to pity the deposed 
monarch, and repent of the steps they had taken in the 
Queen's favour. The Bishop of Winchester, who had gone 
over to the party of the Queen, now turned against her, and 
was soon sufficiently strong to besiege her in Winchester 
whence, pressed by famine, she was obliged to escajjflH 
whilst her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, was taBH? 
prisoner in making good her retreat, and was exchan^d 
for Stephen. Thus another sudden revolution took place ; 
Matilda was deposed, and Stephen again recognised as 
king. 

But he was soon to enter the lists with a new adversary, 
in the person of Henry, son of Matilda, who now resolved 
to assert his right to the kingdom. Assured of the favoura- 
ble disposition of the people, ever fond of change, and of the 
barons, who were disgusted with Stephen's attempt to get 
their castles into his hands, he made a descent on England, 
and was immediately joined by most of the barons. Ste- 
phen marched with all possible diligence to oppose him, and 
arriving within sight of the enemy, prepared for battle. In 
this situation the two armies remained for some time, expect- 
ing a bloody engagement. While they continued thus in 
anxious expectation, a treaty was set on foot by the Earl of 
Arundel, in order to terminate the dispute without blood- 
shed. The death of Stephen's son, Eustace, which happened 

during the course of the treat}', favoured its conclusion.. 

7 # 



78 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

It was therefore agreed that Stephen should reign during his 
life, and that Hemy, after his death, should succeed to the 
throne. Stephen did not long survive, dying a year after 
this treaty at Canterbury, where he was interred, October 
25, 1154. . 



CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Jljfairs. 

As William was now undisputed master of England, he 
no longer found it necessary to court popularity, and he there- 
fore made it his principal object to dismiss the natives from 
every dignity of the church, and replace them by foreigners. 
For this purpose he requested Pope Alexander to send a 
commission for the reformation of abuses. Stigand, the arch- 
bishop, was deposed, and one or two for the irregularity of their 
lives, justly merited their punishment ; but the greater part 
were deposed for no other crime than that of being English- 
men. St. Wulston, the celebrated bishop of Worcester, wa> 
-suffered, from the mildness of his character, to retain his see ; 
and he was almost the only Englishman who, after the lapse 
of two or three years, enjoyed any dignity in the church. 
Upon the whole this change, although accompanied by much 
injustice, was ultimately of benefit to the English church. 
The new bishops introduced a stricter discipline, excited a 
thirst for learning, and distributed their wealth in works of 
piety and public magnificence. During the reign of the 
Conqueror, a controversy arose respecting the jurisdiction 
of the see of Canterbury over that of York, which was car- 
ried to Rome. The Pope referred the matter to the king 
and the English bishops, by whose decision the Archbishop 
of York was obliged to submit. The dispute, however, was 
sometimes revived by their successors. 

William, although of an impetuous temper, had kept up 
a good understanding with the see of Rome, but he was not 
always so complaisant. In one of his angry moods, he pub- 
lished an order that no papal constitution should be received, 
unless first inspected and approved of by him. Also that no 
national synod called by the Archbishop of Canterbury 
should have any force, unless he allowed of it ; that no baron 

It 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 79 

or officer of the king's court should be excommunicated, or 
obliged to undergo public penance, without his consent. 
These orders, it must be observed, did not regard matters of 
faith, but of discipline, by which the king apprehended that 
the government of the realm might be affected ; but in the 
essential rights of the supremacy he certainly paid due respect 
to the Holy See, and was anxious for the propagation of reli- 
gion. He founded many noble abbeys and monasteries, and 
particularly that of Battle, where he obtained the victory 
over Harold. 

Among the foreign ecclesiastics introduced by William, 
Lanfranc was the most illustrious, both by his abilities and 
piety. He was always respected and listened to by the 
king, over whom he had great influence, which he employed 
in the support of justice and the protection of the natives. 
To his perseverance and firmness the church of Canter- 
bury owed a great part of its possessions, which he rescued 
from the hands of the Conqueror and his successor. 

During the life of this prelate, William II. shewed some 
veneration for religion, but after his death the king, who had 
been restrained by his wise counsels, became exceedingly 
rapacious, seizing many of the revenues of the monasteries 
and cathedrals, and exposing the dignities of the church to 
open sale. When any bishopric or abbey became vacant, 
some unprincipled person was found pliant to every measure 
of the court, who suffered the church to be pillaged, and 
benefices to be kept vacant for a long time, that the crown 
might enjoy the revenues. 

In the year 1193, William II. being attacked by a dan- 
gerous illness, sent for the celebrated St. Anselm, abbot of 
Bee, in Normandy, to whom he made his confession, and 
by whose exhortations he appeared so touched with com- 
punction, that he promised to become a new man, and signed 
a declaration which he ordered to be published. It imported, 
that all state prisoners should be set at liberty, and satisfac- 
tion made for the injustices he had done them ; that whereas 
he had kept the see of Canterbury five years in his hands, 
and appropriated the revenues, he now made a tender of it 
to Anselm ; this, however, the holy man declined. William, 
shortly after recovering, quickly forgot his good resolutions, 
though he still continued to press St. Anselm to accept the 
see of Canterbury. Anselm at last consented, upon the fol- 
lowing conditions : " That the king should restore the lands 



gO ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

he had taken from that see, and submit to the bishops in 
matters in which he had manifestly encroached upon their 
authority." These conditions were accepted, and Anselm 
was consecrated. Scarcely, however, was the ceremony per- 
formed, when the king renewed his rapacity ; for several 
months he obliged the tenants of the archbishop to pay their 
rents into his treasury, and after having reduced him to such 
a state of poverty that the expenses of his household were 
defrayed by the Abbot of St. Albans, he insisted upon a great 
present in return for his promotion to the archbishopric. 
Upon the refusal of Anselm to comply with his sacrilegious- 
demands, he was filled with rage and bitter resentment 
against the prelate, and so harassed him on every oppor- 
tunity, that the archbishop was obliged to quit the kingdom 
and retire to Rome. William, after his departure, continued 
in the same course, till he was suddenly arrested. in the 
midst of his career by his death in the New Forest. 

In the reign of Henry I., religious affairs bore, for a short 
time, a better aspect ; he recalled St. Anselm, imprisoned 
Ranulphus, the chief contriver of the oppressions in the 
former reign, and banished libertines and scandalous char- 
acters from his court ; but the disputes concerning investitures 
and the vacant benefices were once more renewed, and rose 
to a great pitch. In the end, however, the king agreed to 
surrender them to the Holy See. 

Some abuses having crept into the church by the non- 
observance of celibacy among the clergy, St. Anselm sum- 
moned a synod at Westminster, in which it was enacted, 
''That all priests, deacons, and subdeacons should be obliged 
by their vow made at their ordination." Henry took advan- 
tage of this, and endeavoured to convert it into a source of 
profit. He imposed heavy fines upon every one found to 
have transgressed ; but as the number was so small as to dis- 
appoint his expectations, he levied a certain fine upon every 
clergyman, guilty or not, and imprisoned or tortured those 
who were unable to pay. 

Stephen, upon his accession to the throne, took an oath in 
presence of the bishops, and the Pope's legate, to preserve 
the liberty of the Church ; and, in particular, not to seize or 
embezzle the profits of vacant benefices, which should be 
preserved for the Church and the next incumbent. But no 
sooner was he in possession of the crown, than, disregard- 
ing his oath he seized at pleasure the treasures of the 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 81 

Church, bestowed the revenues upon laymen, or sold them 
to strangers, imprisoned the bishops, and obliged them to 
surrender their lands. 



CHAPTER III. 

Laws, Government, Commerce. 

The feudal law was the chief foundation both of the gov- 
ernment and jurisprudence established by the Normans in 
England. According to the principles of this law, the king 
was the supreme lord of the landed property ; for the word 
feudal signifies a possession held under another. The land 
was considered to be a species of gift, for which the vassal 
owed certain service to his lord, as the lord did to the crown. 
The vassal was obliged to defend his lord in time of war ; 
and the baron, at the head of his vassals, was bound to 
defend the king and kingdom. As William the Conqueror, 
by taking the usual oath administered to the Anglo-Saxon 
kings at their coronation, had solemnly engaged to main- 
tain the constitution, the English nation had reason to 
believe that they had only changed their native prince for 
one of foreign extraction. But though William for some 
time affected moderation, and even adopted some of the laws 
of Edward the Confessor, he soon utterly subverted the form 
of government, and in its stead substituted a rigid feudal 
monarchy, or military aristocracy. This was attended with a 
grievous depression of the body of the people, who were 
daily exposed to the insults and extortions of the barons, 
whose vassals they were, and from whose jurisdiction it was 
difficult and dangerous for them to appeal. This depres- 
sion, as might be expected, was more complete under the first 
Norman kings than in any other feudal government. Wil- 
liam, by his artful and tyrannical policy, had become in the 
course of his reign proprietor of almost all the lands of the 
kingdom. These he bestowed upon his Norman captains ; 
but those grants he clogged with heavy feudal services, 
which the receiver could not refuse. 

In order to remove all uncertainty, and prevent the rev- 
enues of the crown from being exposed to fraud, William 
the Conqueror ordered a general survey to be made of every 



62 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 

hide of land throughout the kingdom. For this purpose 
commissioners were appointed, with orders to ascertain the 
boundaries of each estate, the names of the owners and 
tenants, their number and condition, their estimated value, 
the nature of their tenures, and the amount of the land tax. 
The fruit of their labours was the compilation of two vol- 
umes, which were deposited in the exchequer, and have 
been transmitted to the present time, under the title of the 
Domesday, or book of judgment. 

The prerogative of buying, in preference to all others, 
things necessary for their courts and castles, commonly called 
purveyances, which belonged to the kings of England in 
this period, was a source of infinite vexations and injuries to 
the people. "The purveyors who attended the court," says 
a respectable historian, " plundered and destroyed the whole 
country through which the king passed, without control. 
Some of them were so intoxicated with malice, that when 
they could not consume all the provisions in the houses, they 
either sold or burnt them." 

The Saxon courts of justice were suffered to decline; the 
county court in particular, the dignity of which for several 
years survived the Norman invasion, fell by a blow equally 
unjust and impolitic : for about the year 1085 the bishops 
and priests were prohibited from sitting there. On this the 
lay barons thought it beneath their dignity to attend ; and 
that hall of justice, whose bench used to be crowded with 
prelates and peers, was gradually deserted. 

The king's court, after the conquest, was very splendid. 
There sat the great officers of the crown, the justices, and 
the barons. In the monarch's absence, the first justiciary 
presided; the ceremonies were magnificent, and the habits 
brilliant and costly. Could pomp and parade have compen- 
sated for the want of equity, the Saxon jurisprudence might 
have been forgotten. Courts were held by the barons, at 
the halls of their castles, where trivial causes were decided. 
Fines were a considerable branch of the royal revenue ; the 
supreme court of judicature was open to none who did not 
bring presents. The barons of the exchequer were not 
ashamed to insert in their records, that the county of Nor- 
folk gave money that it might be fairly dealt with. Enor- 
mous sums were paid by females, for permission not to be- 
forced to marry against their wills. Even ladies of high 
rank were not exempted: for we find Lucia, Countess of Cues*. 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 83 

ter, paying five marks not to be compelled to marry in five 
years. Those who had not money to compound for capital 
offences, were executed commonly at Smithlield. But the 
rigour of the Norman government, and the licentiousness of 
part of the nobles, proved ultimately favourable to general 
liberty. The defect of the Norman title induced their kings 
to listen to the complaints of the people, and to redress many 
of their grievances. The people thus became sensible of 
their own importance ; while the barons, finding themselves 
in secure possession of their estates, apprehending no fur- 
ther disturbances, bore with impatience the burthens imposed 
upon them by William. They saw the necessity of con- 
ciliating their vassals, in order to obtain sufficient force to 
enable them to retrench the prerogatives of the crown. 
Thus restored to a share in the legislature, the English 
commonalty, by a long and vigorous struggle maintained 
with unexampled perseverance, wrested from both king and 
nobles all the other rights of a free people, of which their 
ancestors had been robbed by the invasion and cruel policy 
of William. 

The commerce of England, which had not been con- 
temptible even during the ravages of her various spoilers, 
began at this period to increase rapidly. Besides London, 
whose opulent traders were styled barons ; York, Bristol, 
Canterbury, Exeter, and many other cities, grew rich by 
their trade and navigation. The exports were horses, wool, 
leather, cloth, corn, lead, and tin. The imports, gold, pre- 
cious stones, silk, tapestry, furs, wines, and spices. Little 
alteration was made by the Norman kings in the coins used 
by the Saxons. The silver penny is sometimes called ester- 
ling or sterling, about the derivation of which words anti- 
quaries are much divided. 

The conquest of England by the Normans contributed 
much to the improvement of agriculture in Britain, by the 
many thousand husbandmen who settled in this island. 
Architecture received as great improvements as agriculture : 
indeed the twelfth age may very properly be called the age 
of Gothic architecture. The religious of every order dis- 
played the most astonishing ardour in every thing tending 
to the splendour of divine worship. The ancient edifices 
built in the days of Edgar and Edward the Confessor, were 
demolished, and others more magnificent erected in their 
place. 



84 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 

As William the Conqueror was sensible that the want of 
fortified places in England had greatly hastened his con- 
quest, and might facilitate his expulsion, he built strong cas- 
tles in all the towns within the royal domains. All his earls, 
barons, and prelates, imitated his example. William Rufus 
was a still greater builder than his father, as the castles of 
Dover, Windsor, Norwich, Exeter, the palace of West- 
minster, and many others, testify. Under the patronage of 
the clergy, sculpture and painting also flourished. The illu- 
mination of missals and other books chiefly done by the 
monks, continues to be the admiration even of the present 
time. 

The very singular spirit of chivalry which began to dis- 
play itself about this period, gave a new turn to the educa- 
tion of the nobility and gentry. Their first entrance was 
usually into the family of some baron, where they acted in 
the capacity of pages or valets, which names, though now used 
to designate domestic servants, were then given even to the 
sons or brothers of kings. In this station they were instruct- 
ed in the laws of courtesy and politeness, and in martial 
exercises. After a competent time spent in the station of 
pages, they were advanced to the rank of esquires, and per- 
fected in dancing, riding, hawking, hunting, tilting, and 
other accomplishments. 

The Normans were brave and generous; but haughty, 
passionate, and licentious. They had only two meals a day, 
dinner and supper : the time of dinner was, even at court, 
at nine o'clock in the morning, and the time of supper at 
five in the afternoon. 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 65 

BOOK V. 






Cotemporary Sovereigns. 



POPES. 

Adrian IV 11541 Urban III 1185 

Alexander II 1159 Gregory VIII 1187 

Lucius III 1181 1 Clement III 1188 

EMPEROR OF THE WEST. 

Frederic 1152 

EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 

Emanuel Comnenus 1143 I Andronicus 1183 

Alexis II llSO|lsaac II 1185 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Lewis VII. . 1137J Philip II 1180 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

Alphonsus 1102| Sancho 1185 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Waldeman 1157 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

David 1134| William 1165 

Malcolm IV 1163 1 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Alphonso VIII 1154 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

From the Death of Stephen to the Deposition of Richard II. , 
including a period of 245 Years. 



CHAPTER I. 

The Reign of Henry IL, 34 Years, 8 Months, 12 Days. 

1154.— The first acts of Henry's reign confirmed the 
people in their high esteem for him. He began by driv- 
ing from the kingdom those swarms of mercenaries, whose 
whole trade was war, and who were ever ready to create 
disturbances ; he razed a great number of the fortresses 
: which had been built in the former reigns bv individuals, 

8 ' 



86 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

and which served only to keep up revolts and feuds, by the 
shelter they afforded. He granted charters to several towns, 
by which the citizens claimed their freedom, independ- 
ently of any superior but himself. These charters were 
the groundwork of English liberty. After this he passed 
into France, where he dispossessed his brother Geoffrey of 
the earldom of Anjou, obliging him to accept of an annuity 
instead. He was, however, hastily recalled by a general 
rising of the Welch. In order to chastise them, he entered 
Flintshire ; but being ignorant of the country, he was drawn 
into a defile, where he with great difficulty preserved his 
army from being cut to pieces : he, however, forced the 
pass, and, after ravaging the country, obliged the Welch 
chiefs to sue for peace, which was granted on the homage 
of their princes, and giving hostages for their fidelity. 
Returning to France, he obliged Lewis, who had again begun 
the war, to quit Chamont, which he had fortified, and to 
retire in disorder. The armies were afterwards on the point 
of joining battle, when the monarchs were reconciled by 
Pope Alexander, who was so honoured by them, that they 
walked on foot on each side of his horse, and performed the 
office of yeomen. A peace was finally concluded between 
the two monarchs, by Henry's agreeing to give up Maine 
and Anjou ; which condition, however, he never performed. 
Henry now turned his thoughts to Ireland, the proximity 
of which made it a desirable appendage of the crown, and 
where the inferiority of the natives in the arts of war, together 
with the distracted state of the country, promised an easy 
conquest. To justify this invasion, he asserted that his only 
desire was the reformation of their clergy, and the civiliza- 
tion of the inhabitants. For this purpose he sent an envoy 
to Pope. Adrian, to assure him of his good intentions, and to 
obtain his consent. The project, however, owing to the 
opposition of the barons, and some further schemes of Henry, 
was at that time laid aside. In the mean time the dissen- 
sions of the Irish among themselves increased. Dermot, 
King of Leinster, had carried away by force the wife of 
O'Rourke, King of Leitrim. O'Rourke, to avenge the insult, 
claimed the aid of O'Connor, monarch of Ireland, who 
obliged the adulterer to restore the fugitive. O'Rourke and 
Dermot from that time became bitter enemies, and in the 
end Dermot was driven out of the kingdom. Crossing 
over to England, he solicited assistance from Henry, an< 
did homage to him for his dominions. Henry immediate!] 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 87 

granted his request, and permitted Strongbow, Earl of Pem- 
broke, and two brothers, Fitzstephen and Fitzgerald, to cross 
over to Ireland, with their followers. Success followed their 
efforts : the undisciplined bravery of the natives was vain ; 
city after city was taken, and at last Dublin fell into the 
hands of the rapacious invaders. Henry now found his 
jealousy of Strongbow awakened ; he forbad any more of his 
subjects from crossing into Ireland, and ordered all who had 
joined him to return. Strongbow, alarmed, hastened to 
England, and v renewing his homage and fealty, surrendered 
to Henry the city of Dublin, together with all the castles in 
his possession. The king was pacified : he embarked with 
Strongbow at Milford Haven, and landed at Waterford, 
receiving, as he passed to Dublin, the homage of various 
chiefs. Henry was, however, obliged soon to quit Ireland 
and go over to Normandy, where the rebellion of his sons, 
aided by the kings of France and Scotland, and the earl of 
Flanders, whose armies were ready to fall upon him, 
demanded his presence. His first care was to make head 
against the Scots, who were completely routed by a small 
body of his forces and their king made prisoner, whilst he 
broke through the French camp before Rouen, which city 
he relieved. Peace followed this success, and he was recon- 
ciled to his sons. Henry, the eldest, died soon after, with 
the deepest contrition for his undutiful conduct to his father, 
and three years after Geoffrey was killed by a fall from his 
horse. 

There remained now of the king's sons Richard and John, 
who, far from amity or brotherly affection, conceived nothing 
but jealousy of each other's ambitious pretensions. Richard 
again left his father, and went over to the king of France, 
whose daughter he had betrothed, but who was kept con- 
fined by Henry, as it was said, to make her his mistress. 
Hostilities, therefore, recommenced, and Richard, with most 
of the continental barons, joined the French king. Henry, 
unable to resist their numbers, was obliged to abandon many 
of his strong places. By the persuasion of the bishops, how- 
ever, a conference was held, and Henry, overcome by sick- 
ness and broken by his grief, agreed to all their demands ; 
but when, upon requiring a list of the barons whom he had 
stipulated to pardon, he found John, his favourite child, 
among the number, he could no longer contain himself. He 
had borne' an infirm state of body with calm resignation ; 
but, overpowered by the black ingratitude of a child, whose. 



88 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

interest lay next his heart, he broke out into expressions of 
the utmost despair, cursed the day of his birth, and laid on 
his wicked child a malediction, which he could never after- 
wards be prevailed upon to retract. A lingering fever 
ensued, caused by a broken heart, which soon after termi- 
nated his life at the castle of Chinon, near Saumur, in the 
fifty-eighth year of his age. 



Cotemporary Princes, 

POPES. 

Clement III 1188|Innocent III 1198 

Celestinlll 11911 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 

Frederic 11521 Philip 1197 

Henry VI 1190 1 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Philip II 1180 

KINO OF SPAIN. 

Alphonso IX 1158 

KINO OF SCOTLAND. 

William 1165 



Richard L, surnamed Cceur de Lion, reigned 10 Years* 

1189. — Richard I., Henry's eldest surviving son, suc- 
ceeded to the crown, and immediately began his preparations 
for a crusade to the Holy Land. After having raised very 
considerable sums in England, he sailed to Normandy for 
the like purpose. He then assembled his troops, and joined 
the king of France, whom he met on the plains of Vezelai ; 
their united armies amounted to 100,000 men. With these 
they set sail, but were obliged by a tempest to land in Sicily, 
where they remained during the winter. Here mutual jeal- 
ousies arose between Richard and Philip. The Sicilians, 
instigated by Philip, and irritated at the insolence of the 
English soldiers, attacked them in the streets of Messina. 
Richard immediately flew to arms, took the city, and gave it 
up for some time to the fury of his men. Peace, however, was 
made, and the monarchs again set sail for the Holy Land. 

Upon their arrival in Palestine, they began the attack of 
Acre, which had hitherto resisted all the efforts of the cru- j 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 69 

saders ; but the impetuous valour of Richard soon obliged the 
garrison to capitulate, and the place was taken. Philip 
shortly after, disgusted with the haughtiness of Richard, and 
jealous of his superior abilities and popularity, retired to 
France, while Richard, left to himself, proceeded from victory 
to victory. In order to pave the way for the reduction of 
Jerusalem, Richard determined to besiege Ascalon, a place 
of surprising strength. Saladin, the Saracen monarch, on 
the other hand, determined to dispute his march, and with 
800,000 men offered Richard battle. The English accepted 
it, and were victorious: the king performed prodigies of 
valour ; the Saracens fled in confusion, after the loss of 40,000 
of their best troops. Ascalon surrendered : other cities fol- 
lowed the example, and Richard advanced within sight of 
Jerusalem ; but here was an end of all his glorious prospects. 
Upon reviewing his army, he found it so wasted by sick- 
ness, fatigue, and even victory, that it became absolutely 
necessary to make a truce with Saladin, which was accord- 
ingly agreed upon for three years, and in which it was settled 
that the seaport towns of Palestine should remain in the 
hands of the crusaders, and pilgrims be permitted to visit 
the holy sepulchre in security. Richard on his return had 
the misfortune to be shipwrecked near Aquileia, whence he 
proceeded in disguise to Vienna. Here he was discovered 
by Leopold, Duke of Austria, who had served under him 
at the siege of Acre. His revenge for some affront received 
there, joined to his avarice, instigated him to seize upon 
Richard, and send him prisoner to the emperor, who was 
sordid enough to demand a heavy ransom, and even refused 
him his liberty till the sum was raised in England and sent 
over to Germany. 

While Richard was confined in Germany, the internal 
affairs of his kingdom were in a very unprosperous situation ; 
harassed by his brother John, and impoverished by the rapac- 
ity of the Chancellor Longchamp. John, wishing to secure 
the throne for himself, determined to remove the Chancellor, 
who was inimical to him, out of the way; and after several 
attempts, succeeded in driving him out of the kingdom. 
Upon hearing of Richard's return from the Holy Land, John 
entered into a league with the French king, and assembled 
an army to contend for the crown. In the mean time the 
Chancellor, having discovered the confinement of his master, 
was sent by him to collect money for his ransom. After 
various shameful subterfuges of the emperor, Richard was 

8* 



90 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

set at liberty, and disembarked at Sandwich, amidst the 
acclamations of his subjects. 

Richard immediately determined to punish the perfidy of 
the French king. He landed in Normandy, where he was 
met by his brother John, who implored forgiveness on his 
knees. By the intercession of the queen mother, Richard 
forgave him, though he would not consent to restore his cas- 
tles or lands. 

After various desultory actions, Richard laid siege to Cour- 
celles, and Philip marched to relieve it. The place however 
was taken, and Richard met the king near Gisors. The 
French lost the battle, and fled in confusion to Gisors, where 
the bridge breaking under them, the king of France and 
twenty men, all in armour, were precipitated into the river: 
all perished but Philip. A still more agreeable success 
awaited Richard by the capture of the Count, Bishop of 
Beauvais, who had fought at the head of his retainers. As 
Kichard attributed much of the hardships he had endured, 
when in confinement, to the instigation of this prelate, he 
loaded him with fetters and threw him into a dungeon. The 
Bishop had recourse to the Pope : who severely reproved him 
for neglecting the duties of his station, by putting on the 
helmet instead of the mitre. He however consented to inter- 
cede for him, and for that purpose sent a letter to Richard, 
wherein he begs him to pity "his dear son the bishop." 
Richard, in answer, sent the bishop's coat of mail, with 
these words, "Look if this be the coat of thy son." " No," 
said the Pope, smiling, "it is the coat of Mars; let Mars 
deliver him if he can." 

Soon after, Richard, while besieging the castle of Chalus, 
belonging to one of his refractory barons, was pierced in the- 
shoulder by an archer, who had taken deliberate aim at him.. 
He immediately gave orders for the assault ; took the place, 
and hanged the whole garrison, except Gourdon the archer, 
whom he reserved for a more cruel death. The wound itself 
was not dangerous ; but the unskilful surgeon, in extracting 
the arrow, so rankled the part, that a gangrene ensued, which 
proved mortal. When Richard found hrs end approaching, 
he sent for Gourdon, and asked him why he had sought his 
life. "My father and my brothers fell by your sword," 
replied the undaunted soldier, " and you intended to execute 
me. I am in your power ; but I shall endure the most severe 
torments with pleasure, since Heaven has afforded me the 
means of avenging my family." Struck with the boldness. 






THE PLANrAGHNKiS UNDIVIDED. 91 

of the reply, and humbled by his approaching dissolution, he 
ordered the prisoner to be set at liberty, and presented with 
one hundred shillings. But Marchadee his general, a stran- 
ger to such generosity, ordered him to be flayed alive, and 
then hanged. Richard died in the forty-second year of his 
age, and was buried at Fontevraud, at the feet of his father. 
Richard added to an astonishing degree of muscular 
strength, a soul incapable of fear. As a warrior, he towers 
above all his contemporaries ; such was the dread of his prow- 
ess, even among the Saracens, that for a century after his 
death the Saracen mothers used to terrify their children with 
his name ; but his fame was purchased by the impoverishment 
of his subjects ; and though sometimes magnanimous, he was 
cruel, proud, and resentful. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Innocent III 1198 J Honorius III. ........ 1216 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 

Philip 1197 1 Frederic II 121* 

Gtho IV 12081 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Philip II 1180 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Alphonso IX . 1158 1 Ferdinand III 1216 

Henry 12141 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND 

William 1165 1 Alexander II 1214 



1199. — John, reigned 17 Years, 7 Months, 13 Days. 

Although Arthur, son of Geoffrey, the elder brother of 
Richard and John, was next in blood, as he was out of 
England upon the decease of the late king, John was pro- 
claimed and crowned with the general consent of the 
bishops and barons. Arthur his nephew, whom he had made 
prisoner during a contest with the French king, under whose 
banners he fought, died shortly after, but whether naturally 
or by violence cannot be absolutely known, though it was 
generally believed that John had him dispatched privately 



92 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

in the castle of Rouen, in which place he had confined him. 
By a subsequent war with France, John lost all Normandy, 
Maine, Touraine, Anjou, and Poictiers. 

This disastrous conflict with France was followed by 
another with the Pope, equally disgraceful in its result. 
Hubert, Archbishop of Canterbury, being dead, the king 
insisted upon the election of John, Bishop of Norwich, to 
that dignity. The Bishop had long been the confidential 
adviser of the King, and more employed in affairs of the 
state than the government of his diocese. Stephen Langton, 
an Englishman of great piety and eminent abilities, was 
therefore proposed by the Pope, and elected by the monks 
then at Rome. John, highly enraged, drove the monks 
from their convents, and seized their possessions. In vain 
were remonstrances and threats : John remained obstinate, 
and the kingdom was put under an interdict by the Pope, 
who shortly after pronounced the sentence of excommuni- 
cation against him. Finding now the hearts of all men 
turned from him. and being no longer able to trust any one, 
he reluctantly consented to subscribe to an instrument, by 
which he agreed to restore both clergy and laity to their 
offices and estates ; to admit Langton to be archbishop of 
Canterbury ; and to liberate all persons imprisoned upon 
account of the late quarrel. On the following morning, in 
presence of Pandulf. the Pope's legate, he swore fealty to 
the holy see ; and at the same time basely signed a char- 
ter, granting to the Pope the kingdoms of England and Ire- 
land, which John agreed to hold under him, at the annual 
rent of 1,000 marks. 

In consequence of these disgraces, joined to his repeated 
acts of cruelty and meanness, John became the object of 
contempt and detestation of his subjects and neighbours. 
The Barons had long been forming a confederacy against 
him ; but their union was broken, or their aims disappointed, 
by various and unforeseen accidents. At length they assem- 
bled a large body of men at Stamford, and marched to. 
Brackley, about fifteen miles from Oxford, where the court 
then resided. 

John, hearing of their approach, sent to know what were 
their designs. The barons delivered a schedule containing 
the chief articles, of which the laws of Edward the Confes- 
sor were the ground-work. No sooner were these shewn to 
the King, than he grew furious, and asked why the Barons 
had not demanded his kingdom ; swearing that he would 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. $3 

never comply with such exorbitant proposals. But the con- 
federacy was now too strong to fear much from the conse- 
quences of his resentment. They chose Robert Fitzwalter 
for their general, and proceeded to make war against the 
king. John, struck with terror, first offered to refer all 
differences to the Pope, or to eight barons, four of whom 
were to be chosen by himself, and four by the confederates. 
This the Barons scornfully rejected. He at length assured 
them it was his royal will to grant all their demands, and a 
conference was appointed to adjust ill things for this most 
important treaty. The ground where the King's commis- 
sioners met the Barons, was between Staines and Windsor, 
at a place called Runnimede, still held in reverence by pos- 
terity, as the spot where the standard of freedom was first 
erected in England. Few debates ensued ; and the King, 
with a facility that was somewhat suspicious, signed and 
sealed the Magna Charta, which is in force to this day, and 
is the firmest bulwark of English liberty. John, however, 
could not long brook concessions that were extorted from 
his fears, and therefore took the first opportunity to declare 
that he would not be governed by them. This produced a 
second civil war, in which the Barons had recourse to the 
king of France for assistance. Thus England had the 
gloomy prospect of being every way undone. If John 
succeeded, a tyrannical and implacable monarch was to be 
their tormentor; and should the French king prevail, the 
country was ever after to submit to be governed by France. 
What neither human prudence could foresee, nor policy sug- 
gest, was brought about by a happy and unexpected event. 
John had assembled a considerable army, with the view of 
making one great effort k crush the Barons. With this inten- 
tion he departed from Lynn, and directed his route towards 
Lincolnshire. His road lay along the shore, which was 
overflowed at high water ; but not being apprised of this, 
or ignorant of the tide of the place, he lost all his carriages, 
treasure, and baggage, by its sudden influx. He himself 
escaped with the greatest difficulty, and reached the abbey 
of Sewingstead, where grief for the loss he had sustained 
threw him into a fever, which soon shewed fatal symptoms. 
The next day, being unable to ride on horseback, he was 
carried in a litter to the castle of Seaford, and thence to 
Newark, where, having made his will, he sent for his con- 
fessor, and died three days after, in the forty-ninth year of his 
age, bequeiting the crown to his son Henry. 



94 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

Cotemporary Princes. 



Urban IV 1261 

Clement IV 1264 

Gregory X 126* 



Honorius III 1216 

Gregory IX 1227 

Innocent IV 1241 

Alexander IV 1254 

EMPEHOns OF THE WEST. 

Frederic II 12181 William or Conrad IV. . . . 1250 

Interregnum 12401 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Philip II 1180 I Lewis IX 1226 

Lewis VIII 1223 I Philip III 1271 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Ferdinand III 1216! Alphonsus X 1252 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

Alexander II 12141 Alexander III 1249 



1216. — Henry III., reigned 56 Years, one Month, four Days, 

The intestine commotions under which the Barons had 
called in the aid of the French, commanded by the Dau- 
phin Lewis, ceased by the death of John ; and as the inso- 
lence and rapacity of the French army had caused great 
misery and discontent among the people, Henry was pro- 
claimed and crowned at Gloster, in the tenth year of his 
age, in the presence of Wallo the Pope's legate, of the 
bishops, earls, and barons; and the Earl of Pembroke, a 
nobleman of great valour, who had remained faithful to 
John in all his adversities, was chosen guardian to the young 
king. The Dauphin, however, still held London, and had 
many of the barons on his side. The Earl of Pembroke, 
determining to crush this danger in the beginning, went to^ 
Newark, where he assembled his troops, who were resolved 
to conquer or die in defence of their country, their sov< 
ereign, and their liberties. To increase their confidence 
Wallo with great solemnity excommunicated Lewis and all 
his abettors. Marching to Lincoln, they gave battle to the 
Earl of Perche, and gained a complete victory. The Ear 
was killed, and Lincoln taken and plundered. Soon after 
the French, who were coming to the assistance of the Dau- 
phin with a very superior fleet, were defeated, and most of 
their ships taken. Lewis, now finding his affairs desperate, 
entered into a treaty, and quitted the kingdom. 



THE PIANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 95 

The young king, who was gentle, religious, humane, and 
unsuspicious, but weak, suffered himself to be too easily led 
by artful and designing favourites ; which, together with the 
preference given to foreigners, so disgusted the Barons, that 
they formed a powerful confederacy against him, placing at 
their head Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. This con- 
federacy first manifested itself in the chamber of Parliament, 
where the Barons appeared in complete armour. The king, 
upon their entry, asked what was their intention? They 
submissively replied, to make him their sovereign, by con- 
firming his power, and to have their grievances redressed. 
Henry instantly summoned a parliament at Oxford, to digest 
a new plan of government, and to elect proper persons, who 
were to be intrusted with the chief authority. This parlia- 
ment, afterwards called the Mad Parliament, went expedi- 
tiously to work upon the business of reform. The whole 
state, in their hands, underwent a complete alteration ; all 
its former officers were dismissed, and creatures of their 
own put in their places. They not only abridged the 
authority of the King, but the efficacy of Parliament, giving 
to twelve persons all parliamentary power between each 
session. Thus these insolent nobles, after trampling upon 
the crown, threw prostrate all the rights of the people, and 
a vile oligarchy was on the point of being established for 
ever. 

The first opposition to these usurpations was made by a 
power, which had lately acquired some influence in the 
constitution. The knights of the shire had for some time 
been regularly assembled in a separate house. These soon 
perceived the grievances, and complained loudly against 
them. They even called upon the King's eldest son, Ed- 
ward, to interpose his authority, and save the sinking nation. 
Edward, who from a very early age had given the strongest 
proofs of courage, wisdom, and constancy, was at first unwil- 
ling to interfere, but he at last consented, and a parliament 
was called, in which the King assumed his former authority. 
This was considered as a breach of the late convention, and 
a civil war ensued, in which Leicester was victorious, and 
the King made prisoner : but soon after exchanged for Ed- 
ward, who was to remain as a hostage. The Parliament, 
however, notwithstanding Leicester's success, was not so 
complying as he expected, and finding himself unable to 
oppose the general wish of the people, he made a merit of 
necessity, and set Edward at liberty, taking care at the same 



96 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

time to employ emissaries to watch all his motions, and frus- 
trate his aims. But the prince found means to escape, and 
put himself at the head of his party. A battle ensued, in 
which Leicester's army, wasted by famine, was unable to 
withstand the impetuosity of Edward's attack, who bore 
down on them with incredible fury. During this terrible 
day, Leicester behaved with astonishing intrepidity, and kept 
up the spirit of the action from two in the afternoon till nine 
at night. At last, having had his horse killed under him, 
he was compelled to fight on foot : and though he demanded 
quarter, his adversary refused it. The old king, who was 
placed in front of the battle, was wounded in the shoulder ; 
and as he was not known by his friends, he was on the point 
of being killed by a soldier, when he cried out, " I am 
Henry of Winchester, the king," and he was saved by a 
knight of the royal army. Prince Edward, on hearing his 
father's voice, instantly ran to the spot where he lay, and 
had him removed to a place of safety. This victory proved 
decisive, and the prince, having restored peace to the nation, 
resolved to take the cross. In pursuance of this design, he 
sailed from England with a large army ; but was scarcely 
departed, when the King found his health in so declining a 
state, that he ordered him to return without delay ; but Henry 
died before his arrival, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 



Gregory X 1268 

Innocent V 1276 

Adrian V 1276 

John XXI 1276 

Nicholas III 1277 

Martin IV 1280 



Honorius IV 1285 

Nicholas IV 1287 

Celestin V 1292 

Boniface VIII 1294 

Benedict XI 1303 

Clement V 1304 



EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 

William or Conrad 1250 I Adolphus 1291 

Rodolphus 1273 1 Albeit 1298 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Philip III 1271 1 Philip IV 1285 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Alphonsus X 1252 1 Ferdinand IV 1295 

Sancho IV 1284 1 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

Alexander III 1249 1 Baliol 1292 

Margaret 1286 I Interregnum 1296 

Interregnum 1290 I Robert 1306 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 97 



Edward /., reigned 34 Years, 7 Months, 21 Days. 

1*27$; — Though the death of the late king happened 
whilst Edward was in the Holy Land, measures had been so 
well taken, that the crown was transferred with perfect tran- 
quillity ; and Edward, on his return, was crowned with great, 
pomp. Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, alone refused to attend 
to do homage for his principality, and Edward thought this 
a proper opportunity to reduce the Welsh to subjection, and 
unite their country to England. 

The Welsh had, for many ages, enjoyed their own laws, 
language, and customs. They were descended from the 
ancient Britons, who had escaped the Roman and Saxon 
invaders, and still preserved their freedom, and their country 
uncontaminated by the admission of foreign conquerors. 
Whenever England was distressed by faction at home, or 
its forces called off to wars abroad, the Welsh made it a 
constant practice to pour in their irregular troops, and lay 
waste the open country. Edward now levied an army 
against Llewellyn, and marched into his country. The 
Welsh prince, upon his approach, took refuge among the 
inaccessible mountains of Snowdon, the steep retreat that 
had, for many ages, defended his ancestors against all the 
attempts of the Roman and Saxon conquerors. But Edward, 
equally vigilant and cautious, pierced into the very centre of 
Llewellyn's territories, and approached the Welsh in their last 
retreats. There Llewellyn made his submission, and the King 
retired. But an idle prophecy of Merlin, that Llewellyn was 
to be the restorer of Brutus' empire in Britain, was sufficient 
to induce this superstitious prince to revolt once more, and 
hazard a decisive battle with the English. With this view he 
marched into Radnorshire, and on passing the Wey, his troops 
were surprised and defeated by Edward Mortimer, while he 
himself was absent from his army. Upon his return, seeing 
the dreadful situation of his affairs, he ran desperately into 
the midst of the enemy, and quickly found that death he 
sought. David, the brother of this unfortunate prince, soon 
after fell in the same cause, and with him expired the gov- 
ernment and distinction of the Welsh nation. It. was united 
to England, made a principality, and given to the eldest 
son of the crown. Foreign conquest might add to the 
glory of the kingdom ; this added to its strength and felicity. 
The Welsh became blended with their conquerors, and in 

9 



98 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

the lapse of a few ages all national animosity was for- 
gotten. 

Shortly after the subjugation of Wales, the affairs of Scot- 
land engaged Edward's attention, and gave him hopes of 
adding that kingdom also to his dominions. Margaret, 
Edward's sister, had been married to the king of Scotland. 
She bore him two sons and a daughter. The two sons died 
young: the daughter married the king of Norway. Mar- 
garet died shortly after the birth of the second son ; and the 
King being accidentally killed by a fall from his horse, the 
crown devolved on his grandchild, daughter of Erick, king 
of Norway. Erick solicited for his daughter the protection 
of Edward : who readily undertook the charge, intending 
to marry her to his own son. To this proposal the father 
readily consented. Edward's plans were, however, frustrat- 
ed by the untimely death of the princess, upon which three 
competitors, descendants of the Earl of Huntingdon, by 
three daughters, claimed the throne. John Hastings, in 
right of his mother, as one of the co-heiresses of the crown ; 
John Baliol, as descending from the eldest daughter, who 
was his grandmother ; and Robert Bruce, as the actual son 
of the second daughter. Edward, to whom this dispute 
was referred, immediately claimed the crown in his own 
right, and offered it to Bruce to be held under himself; but 
Bruce nobly refusing it upon such conditions, Baliol accepted 
the offer, and did homage for the crown. 

Baliol thus placed upon the Scottish throne, more as a 
vassal than a king, soon felt the disgrace of his situation, and 
prepared to assert his independence ; but no power the Scots 
could bring into the field was able to withstand the victorious 
army of Edward. He overthrew their forces in many en- 
gagements, and carried Baliol prisoner to London, destroying 
at the same time all records and monuments of antiquity 
that inspired the Scots with a spirit of national pride. Wil- 
liam Wallace, however, so celebrated in Scottish story, at- 
tempted to rescue his country from the English yoke. His 
first exploits were confined to petty ravages and occasional 
attacks upon the English ; but he at length overthrew their 
armies, and slew their generals. Edward, who was in 
Flanders during these reverses, hastened back, impatient to 
restore his authority and secure his former conquest. He 
met the Scottish army at Falkeith. where a battle was fought, 
which ended in the total rout of the Scots, of whom 12,000 
were left dead upon the field, while not above one hundred of 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 9D 

the English were slain. Wallace still, however, continued 
to assert his independence, wandering with a few followers 
from mountain to mountain, until at last he was betrayed 
by Sir John Monteith, his pretended friend. The King, 
wishing to strike the Scots with an example of severity, 
ordered him to be conducted to London in chains, where he 
was hanged, drawn, and quartered with brutal ferocity. 

Bruce, who had been long kept a prisoner in London, at 
length escaped, and was crowned king by the Bishop of St. 
Andrews, in the abbey of Scone, where numbers flocked 
to his standard, resolved to support his pretensions. Edward, 
finding that after thrice conquering the Scots all his work 
was to be begun afresh, vowed revenge against the whole 
nation. Summoning his prelates, nobility, and all who held 
knight's service, to meet him at Carlisle, he in the mean 
time detached a body of forces, under Aylmer de Valence, 
who gained a complete victory over Bruce in Perthshire. 
Immediately after this dreadful blow, Edward entered Scot- 
land in person, with his army divided into two parts, expect- 
ing to find in the opposition of the Scots a pretext to punish 
them. But this brave prince, cruel only from motives of 
policy, could not strike the poor natives, who made no resist- 
ance. His anger was disappointed in their humiliation, and 
he was ashamed to extirpate those who only opposed patience 
to his indignation. His death put an end to the apprehensions 
of the Scots : he sickened and died at Carlisle of a dysentery, 
July 7th, 1307, in the sixt} r -ninth year of his age> 

Edward was tall, of regular features, majestic aspect, and 
of a robust constitution ; from the great length of his legs, 
he got the surname of Longshanks. He is by some taxed 
witli severity, but at least he distributed justice without 
regard to persons. By his queen, Eleanor, he had four sons 
and eleven daughters, most of whom died young ; and of 
his sons, Edward II. alone survived him. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Clement V 1304 I Benedict XII 1324 

John XXII. . 1314 1 

EMPERORS OF THE WEST. 

Albert . 1208 | Lewis V 1314 

FJ.enijrV.il, . . . .... . . 1 309 I John and Philip V 1317 



100 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

KINGS OF FIIANCE. 

Philip IV 1285 | Philip V 1316 

Lewis X 1314 I Charles IV 1322 

John 13161 

KINDS OF SPAIN. 

Ferdinand IV. ........ 1295 1 Alphonsus XI 1312 

KING OF SCOTLAND. 

Robert 1306 



1307. — Edward II, reigned 19 Years, 6 Months, 15 Bays. 

Edward was in the twenty-third year of his age when 
he succeeded his father. From his early childhood he had 
lived in the closest intimacy with Piers de Gavestone, son 
of a gentleman of Guienne ; and being of a mild and gentle 
nature, had allowed his companion to have an entire ascend- 
ancy over him. Gavestone was a young man of many 
personal accomplishments, but utterly destitute of those 
qualities of the heart which deserve esteem. Intoxicated 
with his power over Edward, he treated the English nobility 
with contempt and derision. Edward had married Isabella, 
>daughter of the French king, reckoned the most beautiful 
woman of the age, but of violent and uncontrolled pas- 
sions. She could not see, without indignation, the friend- 
ship of the King for Gavestone. She placed herself, there- 
fore, at the head of a conspiracy of the Barons to ruin him. 
They met at Westminster, and demanded his immediate 
banishment. The King, timid and wavering, granted their 
request : but soon after recalled him ; upon which the whole 
kingdom was in a ferment. The barons flew to arms, and 
Lancaster put himself at their head. Edward, instead of 
attempting to make resistance, sought only for safety. He 
embarked with his favourite at Tinmouth, and sailed with 
him to Scarborough, where he left him as in a place of secu- 
rity, and then went to York, either to raise an army, or by 
his presence to allay the general animosity. In the mean 
time Gavestone was besieged in Scarborough by the Earl 
of Pembroke. Sensible of the bad condition of the place, 
he offered terms, stipulating that he should remain a prisoner 
in Pembroke's hands for two months, and that endeavours 
should be used in the mean time for a general accommo- 
dation. But Pembroke, who had no intention to let him off 
SQ easily, ordered him to be conducted to the castle of 






THE PEANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 101 

Dedington, near Banbury, where, on pretence of other 
business, he left him with a feeble guard. The Earl of 
Warwick, informed of this, attacked the castle, and quickly 
made himself master of it and the unfortunate Gavestone. A 
consultation was immediately held by some of the Barons ; 
and it was resolved unanimously to put him to death, as an 
enemy to the kingdom. They had him conveyed to a place 
called Blacklow Hill, where his head was severed from his 
body. To add to Edward's grief, he soon after met with 
a signal defeat from the Scots, under Bruce, and this drove 
him once more to seek relief in the company of favourites. 
For these he chose the two Despencers, father and son ; and' 
so great was his partiality for them, that he dispossessed sev- 
eral nobles of their estates to bestow them upon these cour- 
tiers. The Barons upon this once more had recourse to 
arms : sentence of perpetual exile was pronounced against 
the two Spencers by parliament, and their estates were for- 
feited. But the King, now roused from his lethargy, took 
the field in defence of his beloved Spencer ; and at the head 
of 30,000 men, pressed the Earl of Lancaster so closely, 
that he was obliged to fly from place to place, and was at 
last made prisoner. As he had formerly shewn little mercy 
to Gavestone, there was but little extended to him ; he was, 
condemned by a court-martial, and beheaded on an eminence- 
near Pomfret. The Queen, however, returning into Eng- 
land from France, whither she had withdrawn, joined the 
discontented nobles, and entirely changed the fortunes of 
Edward. His friends forsook him ; the strong places were 
given up; and the Barons, assembled at Hertford, proclaimed 
Prince Edward guardian of the kingdom. The King was 
soon after taken, as was Hugh Despencer, who was immedi- 
ately beheaded. The elder Despencer was taken in Bristol, 
and hanged in his armour ; his head was sent to Winchester, 
and exposed to the insults of the populace. Several other 
lords also suffered death. The Queen and prince made 
their entry into London, where they were received with 
great joy. In an assembly of the Barons, it was declared 
that the King was unfit to reign ; that he should be deposed, 
and his son placed upon the throne. The unfortunate King, 
unable to oppose their proceedings, quietly resigned the 
crown to his son. He was, notwithstanding, kept a prisoner 
in Berkley castle, where the endeavours of his party to re- 
lease him hastened his unfortunate end ; which it is said was 
occasioned by a red hot spit run up his body. It is thought 

9* 



102 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

this could not have been done without the privacy of the 
two noblemen who had the charge of him. Some even 
think the Queen was a party to the cruelty ; though Wal- 
singham and other historians are willing to release her from 
the imputation. Edward died in the forty-third year of 
his age, and was buried privately in the abbey of Glou- 
cester. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Benedict XII 1324 | Urban V 1362 

Clement VI 1342 [Gregory XI 1370 

Innocent VI 13521 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY, OR OF THE WEST. 

John and Philip V 1317 j Charles IV 1322- 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Charles IV . 13221 John II 1350 

Philip V 1328lCharles V 1364 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Alphousus XI 1312|Henry II 1368 

Pedro 13501 

KINGS OF SCOTEANO. 

Robert 13061 Robert II. 1370' 

David II 13291 



1327. — Edward III., reigned 50 Years, 4 Months, 15 Days* 

The parliament, by which Edward III., at the age of 
fifteen years, was raised to the throne, had, during the life of 
his father, appointed twelve persons as his privy council.. 
On his assuming the reins of government, at the age of , 
eighteen, Mortimer, the queen-mother's favourite, who had 
rendered himself odious to the Barons and the people, was 
hanged at Tyburn, and the Queen herself, as a just retribu- 
tion for her infamous conduct towards her unfortunate hus- 
band, was confined for life. Edward soon after engaged in 
a war with the Scots, and after defeating them with immense, 
slaughter, he overran all Scotland, obliging their king to fleei 
to France, and setting up Baliol II. as king of Scotland! 
who did homage for his kingdom. He next turned his vic- 
torious arms against France, asserting his right to that king- 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 103 

dom against Philip of Valois. in virtue of his mother Isabella, 
sister to the deceased king. The first great advantage gained 
by the English, was in a naval engagement off the coast of 
Flanders, in which the French lost 2.J0 ships, and had 30,000 
of their seamen and two admirals slain. Edward's invasion, 
and the devastation of his troops, spread terror through all 
France. Caen was taken and plundered ; the villages and 
towns to the very gates of Paris shared the same fate. Philip, 
the French king, was not idle in making his dispositions to 
repel the enemy. He stationed one of his generals with an 
army on the opposite side of the Somme, over which Edward 
was to pass, while at the head of 100,000 men he advanced 
to give the enemy battle. 

Both armies were now in sight of each other, and though 
the forces of the English were greatly inferior to the French, 
Edward was resolved to indulge the impetuosity of his troops, 
and put all to the hazard of a battle. He chose his ground 
with advantage, near the village of Cressy, and there deter- 
mined to resist the shock of the enemy. He drew up his 
men in three lines ; the first was commanded by the young 
Prince of Wales, the second by the Earls of Northampton 
and Arundel, and the third, as a reserve, was headed by 
himself in person. Philip, on the other side, impelled by 
resentment, and confident in his numbers, was more eager to 
bring the English to an engagement, than prudent in taking 
measures for its success. He led on his army in three 
bodies opposite to those of the English : the first consisted 
of 15,000 Genoese cross-bowmen ; the second was led by 
the King's brother; and Philip was at the head of the third. 

About three in the afternoon the famous battle of Cressy 
began, by the King's ordering the Genoese archers to charge : 
but they were so fatigued with their march, that they called 
out for a little rest before they engaged. The Count D' Alen- 
<jon, informed of their petition, rode up and reviled them as 
cowards, commanding them to begin the onset without delay. 
Their reluctance to engage was still further increased by a 
heavy shower, which fell that instant, and relaxed their bow- 
strings, so that the discharge produced little effect. On the 
other hand, the English archers, who had kept their bows in 
'cases, let fly their arrows so quickly and with such good aim, 
that nothing was to be seen among the Genoese but hurry, 
terror, and dismay. The young Prince of Wales, with 
admirable presence of mind, taking advantage of their confu- 
sion, led on his line to the charge. The French cavalry, how- 



104 THE PLANTAUENETS UNDIVIDED. 

ever, under the Count D' Alen<jon, wheeling round, sustained 
the combat, and began to hem the English in. The Earls 
of Northampton and Arundel immediately came to the assist- 
ance of the Prince, who appeared foremost in the shock, 
and wherever he appeared turned the fortune of the day- 
The thickest of the battle was gathered round him, and the 
valour of a boy filled even veterans with astonishment. 
From the apprehension, however, that some mischance might 
happen to him in the end, an officer was dispatched to the 
King, desiring that succours might be sent to the Prince's 
relief. Edward, who had all this time, with great tranquillity, 
viewed the engagement from a windmill, inquired with 
seeming deliberation whether his son was dead : but on the 
assurance that he still lived, and was giving astonishing; 
instances of his valour, " Then tell my generals," replied the 
King, " that he shall have no assistance from me : the honr 
our of the day shall be his." This reply inspired the Prince 
and his attendants with new courage. They made a fresl 
attack upon the French cavalry, in which Count D'Alen9or 
was killed. This was the beginning of their total overthrow. 
The whole army took to flight, and were put to the swore 
by their pursuers without mercy. Never was victory less 
bloody to the English. The conquerors lost but one esquire 
two knights, and a few of inferior rank ; 30,000 of the French 
were left dead on the field of battle, among whom were the 
Duke of Lorraine and the King of Bohemia. The fate of they 
latter is remarkable : though blind, being told that the battle-: 
went against them, " Lead me," said he, " into the hottest 
part of the battle, that I also may have a stroke at the Eng- 
lish." Four knights accordingly rushed with him into the 
thickest of the enemy, and were immediately slain. Edward 
lost no time in improving his victory; he marched to Calais, 
which, after a brave struggle of a twelve months' siege,>j 
amidst all the horrors of famine, was taken. 

Whilst Edward was pursuing his victories in France, the 
Scots, taking advantage of his absence, invaded the frontiers-'' 
Philippa, Edward's queen, prepared to repulse the enemy- 1 
At Neville's Cross the armies encountered each other. The 
Scots were entirely routed, with the loss of 15,000 men killed 
on the field of battle ; and David Bruce, their king, was made 
prisoner, with a great number of his nobles and knights. 

The truce which had been made between Edward and, 
Philip being ended by the death of the latter, who was sue-' 
ceeded by his son John, both parties prepared for a renewal; 



THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 105 

of the war. The battle of Poictiers followed soon after, in 
which Edward the Black Prince took John prisoner, and led 
him in triumph to London. Two kings, prisoners at the 
same time, was considered a very glorious event; but glory 
was all that England gained by it. Whatever was won in 
Franco, at the expense of so much danger, blood, and trea- 
sure, was, from the impossibility of continuing such enormous 
supplies, successively lost, even without the mortification of 
a defeat; But what most sensibly affected the King, and 
cast a sfloom upon the whole nation, was the death of the 
Black Prince, who had been wasting away for a considerable 
time under a cruel consumptive disorder, which carried him 
off in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving behind him a 
character without blemish, and a regret among the people 
that time could not easily efface. The King did not long 
survive, dying about a year after, at Sheene, in Surrey, in 
the sixty-fifth year of his age. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Gregory II 1370 I Boniface IX 1389 

Urban VI 1378 I 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

Charles IV 1322 j Winceslaus 1378 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Charles V 1364 1 Charles VI 1380 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

| Henry II 13681 Henry III 1390 

John 1 13791 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

Robert II 1370 i Robert III 1390 



1377. — Richard II. , reigned 22 Years, 2 Months, 2 Days. 

Richard II., son of the Black Prince, was but eleven 
years old when he began to reign. The government of the 
kingdom was entrusted to a council of nine persons, who 
were, however, secretly directed by the three uncles of the 
King, the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloster, but particu- 
larly by the first. War had been carried on between France 



106 THE PLANTAGENETS UNDIVIDED. 

and England after the death of Edward III., but in so lan- 
guishing a manner, as served only to exhaust the finances of 
both kingdoms. In order to repair the expenses of these 
fruitless expeditions, the English Parliament imposed a poll- 
tax of three groats on each person, male or female, above the 
age of fifteen. The inequality and injustice of this tax were 
obvious to the meanest capacity, while the inexorable man- 
ner in which it was levied, made it yet more grievous. Tiie 
discontents of the populace were at the highest pitch, when 
the following incident kindled them into a flame. The tax- 
gatherers went to the house of one Wat Tyler, a blacksmith, 
in Essex, and demanded payment for his daughter : which 
he refused, alleging that she was under the age mentioned 
in the act. The brutal collector attempting a very villainous 
proof of the contrary, the father knocked out the ruffian's 
brains with his hammer : the by-standers applauded the 
action, and exclaiming, that it was full time for the people 
to take vengeance on their tyrants, immediately flew to arms 
The flame in an instant spread over that and the adjacen 
counties ; and the populance, headed by Wat Tyler, com- 
mitted the most outrageous violence upon such of the nobility 
and gentry as fell into their hands. At length 100,000 of 
them assembled on Blackheath, whence they proceeded to 
London. The King, passing along Smithfield with a small 
guard, met with Wat Tyler at the head of the insurgents, 
and entered into a conference with him. Tyler, ordering 
his companions to halt, ventured into the midst of the royal 
retinue, where he behaved with such insolence, often putting 
his hand to his dagger, that Walworth, Mayor of London, 
struck him to the ground, where he was instantly dispatche 
by one of the King's attendants. The mutineers, seeing thei 
leader fall, prepared for revenge, and the King with the 
whole company would certainly have been victims to their 
fury, had not Richard discovered an extraordinary presence 
of mind on the occasion. Accosting the enraged multitude- 
with an affable and intrepid countenance, he said, " Are you 
angiy, my good people, because you have lost your leader! 
I, your king, will be your leader, follow me." The popu-' 
lace, confused and overawed by his presence, implicitly fo! 
lowed him into the fields, where, on the appearance 0/ a bod 
of well-armed veterans, who had been secretly drawn togethe 
they peaceably separated, upon the King's granting them a 
charter of redress for their grievances, which, however, was 
disannulled soon after by Parliament. 



I 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 107 

Had Richard been a prince of real abilities, he might now 
have established the tranquillity of his dominions on a sure 
foundation : but he delivered himself up to worthless favour- 
ites, which soon produced animosity between him and the 
princes of the blood and the barons. The Duke of Gloster, 
perceiving the mischief which the conduct of his nephew 
might occasion, formed a party against the favourite. Richard, 
however, had the Duke seized and conveyed to Calais, 
where he was privately strangled. He was now upon the 
point of becoming more despotic than ever, when he lost his 
crown and his life by a sudden catastrophe. A quarrel had 
arisen between the Earl of Derby, son of John of Gaunt, 
lately created Duke of Hereford, and the Duke of Norfolk : 
Richard banished them both, with particular marks of injus- 
tice to the former, who soon became Duke of Lancaster by 
his father's death. While the King was quelling an insur- 
rection in Ireland, the wishes of the nation were gratified by 
the appearance of his exiled cousin, who landed at Ravenspur, 
in Yorkshire, and w T as soon at the head of 60,000 men. 
Richard hastened back to England, where his troops refusing 
to fight, and his subjects whom he had affected to despise 
deserting him, he was made prisoner with twenty of his at- 
tendants. He was immediately conducted to London, de- 
posed in full Parliament, and the Duke of Lancaster proclaimed 
in his stead, by the name of Henry IV. As to Richard, it 
was long the prevailing opinion that Sir Piers Exton and 
others of his guards fell upon him in the castle of Pomfret, 
in wmich he was confined, and where, after bravely killing 
four of his assailants, he was murdered by Sir Piers, who 
getting behind him, struck him down with a poleaxe. It is 
more probable, however, that he was starved to death. He 
died in the thirty-fourth year of his age, 1399. 



CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Affairs, Sfc. 

Among the many controversies which arose with regard 
to the ecclesiastical government during the reign of Henry II., 
( the most important was that for which St. Thomas a Becket 
lost his life. Thomas a Becket was the son of Gilbert, one 
of the principal citizens of London, and a particular friend 



108 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 

of Archbishop Theobald. Gilbert at an early age made a 
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and falling into the hands of the 
Saracens, became a slave to one of their emirs. An only 
daughter of this emir hearing him one day explain the Chris- 
tian faith, and declare his readiness to die for it, was so 
moved as to form upon the spot the resolution to become a 
Christian. Gilbert and his companions soon after made their 
escape during the night, and returned in safety to London. 
The young Syrian lady privately left her father's house, and 
followed him thither. She was instructed in the faith, bap- 
tised by the name of Maud, and married to him in St. Paul's 
church, by the Bishop of London. Thomas was born a year 
after this marriage, and when arrived at man's estate was 
taken into the household of Archbishop Theobald. Receiv- 
ing holy orders, he rose to the office of Archdeacon of Can- 
terbur) T . The Archbishop committed to his care the most 
intricate affairs, and never had reason to repent the confi- 
dence he reposed in him. The office of Chancellor becom- 
ing vacant, Theobald recommended Becket to the King, 
who readily exalted him to that dignity, and was so highly 
pleased with his abilities, that he committed to him the edu- 
cation of his son Henry. Amidst all these honours, he 
lived humble, mortified, recollected, and chaste, and triumph- 
ed over all the snares which wicked courtiers, and even the 
King himself, laid for his virtue. Theobald, the Archbishop, 
dying in 1160, King Henry resolved to raise Becket to that 
dignity, who, after various excuses, thus plainly addressed 
his majesty: " Should God permit me to be Archbishop of 
Canterbury, I should soon lose your majesty's favour ; for 
your majesty will be pleased to suffer me to tell you, that 
your infringement of the rights of the church make me fear 
you would require of me more than I could conscientiously 
concede." Trie King, however, paid no regard to his remon- 
strances, and he was elected in 1162. The storm which 
Becket had foreseen, now began to gather and burst upon 
him. His first offence was, the resignation of the office of 
chancellor. He next incurred the royal displeasure by re- 
sisting the King's usurpation of the revenues of the vacant 
sees and other benefices, that he might enjoy the temporali- 
ties as several of his predecessors had done. A third cause 
of offence was, his refusing to allow lay judges to summon 
ecclesiastical persons before their tribunal. The King, highly 
enraged at this opposition, summoned an assembly of the 
bishops and barons at Northampton, where sentence was 






ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &«. 109 

pronounced against him, and all his property confiscated to 
the King. Becket referred his cause to the Pope, who was 
then in France, whither he accordingly repaired, and in an 
audience fully justified himself against the ambassadors sent 
by Henry to accuse him. Upon this, Henry vented his pas- 
sion against the Pope and the Archbishop, and confiscated 
the goods of all the friends, relatives, and domestics of the 
obnoxious prelate. At last, however, a reconciliation was 
brought about, and St. Thomas returned to England. As 
he approached- Southampton, the clergy, the laity, men of 
all ranks and ages, went forth to meet him, and celebrated 
his entry with hymns of exultation. But it was not long 
before the enemies of Becket began again to alienate the 
King from him, by rousing his former jealousies. On his 
arrival in England, the Archbishop of York in a threatening 
manner demanded absolution from the censures passed upon 
him and his associates ; and upon Becket' s refusal, carried 
his complaints to the King. Henry in a transport of fury 
cried out that he had no friends near him, or he could not 
have been so long exposed to the insults of an ungrateful 
hypocrite. These words, which were heard by the whole 
court, induced four of the King's attendants to rid him of 
the prelate. On Christmas day the Archbishop preached to 
his flock, and ended with declaring that he should shortly 
leave them, for the time of his death was at hand. All 
wept bitterly at these words, and St. Thomas himself 
could not refrain from tears. The four assassins at length 
arrived at Canterbury, and entering the cathedral whilst the 
Archbishop was at vespers, called out, " Where is the trai- 
tor?" As no answer was returned, another exclaimed, 
" Where is the Archbishop?" when the Prelate advancing, 
replied, " Here is the Archbishop, but no traitor." Upon 
this one of the assassins, named Tracy, struck at his head with 
a sword : but an ecclesiastic named Edward Gwin, warded 
off the blow with his arm, which was almost cut off. Two 
others immediately fell upon him with their weapons, and 
he was now expiring from his wounds, when the fourth, 
Richard Barton, cut off the top of his skull, and scattered 
his brains on the pavement. Nothing could exceed the 
King's consternation, when the tidings of this melancholy 
event arrived ; he shut himself up for three days, taking 
scarcely any nourishment, and for forty days he never went 
abroad ; he sent deputies to the Pope, to assure him that he 
had neither ordered nor intended the execrable murder ; he 

10 



110 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, fee. 

swore to abolish the laws on which he had grounded hid 
usurpations, and restore all the lands and revenues of the 
church ; and, to procure peace to his mind, and make what 
atonement he could for the scandal he had given, he resolved 
to make a pilgrimage to St. Thomas's shrine at Canterbury. 
When he came within a league of the city, he dismounted 
from his horse, and putting on a coarse woollen garment, 
walked barefooted the remainder of the way. When he 
reached the tomb, he threw himself upon the ground, shed- 
ding a flood of tears ; and, to render his humiliation still 
more remarkable, he ordered the monks and clergy to scourge 
him with whips. Having spent the remainder of the night 
in prayer, and in the morning attended at the sacrifice of 
the mass, he bestowed very rich presents and lands upon 
the church of Canterbury, and returned to London. 

In the reign of John, a dispute arose with Pope Innocent 
III., who had nominated to the see of Canterbury Stephen 
Langton, a prelate thoroughly qualified for that dignity, but 
not approved of by the King. This quarrel came to such a 
height, that several bishops were banished, and their reve- 
nues confiscated to the crown. Not only the bishops, but 
also the whole body of the clergy and religious, were greatly 
oppressed. When the Pope found that John was deaf to all 
his intreaties on the subject, he excommunicated him, and 
put the whole kingdom under an interdict. The King, find- 
ing himself in very critical circumstances, recalled the bishops 
by the persuasion of Pandulphus, the Pope's legate, and re- 
instated them in their possessions. But he now ran into the 
other extreme ; and, whether with a view to bind the Pope 
more closely to his interests in case of an attack from France, 
or to provide against any insurrection of his people at home, 
by an unparalleled instance of folly and injustice he executed 
a public instrument, by which he made his kingdoms of Eng- 
land and Ireland tributary to the Pope and his successors : 
thus violating the oath he had taken at his coronation, to 
maintain the liberties both of church and state. Neither 
the bishops, the clergy, nor the nation in general, would, 
however, brook this subjection to the see of Rome. The 
bishops, in particular, complained loudly of the abuses to 
which this dependance gave birth. 

These grievances had arisen to so high a pitch in the reign 
of Henry III., that the people became greatly exasperated, 
and it was determined to send a representation to the Pope, 
wherein it was stated, that the church of England was so 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. HI 

overawed by foreigners, who stept into the best preferments 
by papal provisions, that patrons were deprived of their right 
of presenting, the revenues were spent abroad, the cure of 
souls was neglected, and studies languished, because the 
English youth had no encouragement to qualify themselves 
for the dignities of the church. It concluded with intimat- 
ing the authority the King might claim, if he were not dis- 
posed to be complaisant to the holy see. 

Among the many bishops eminent for sanctity, who op- 
posed the court of Rome in this great contest concerning 
papal provisions, may be reckoned Richard Withershed, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, who expressed himself with 
great force on the King admitting such a number of Italians 
into the best benefices. St. Edmond, also Archbishop of 
Canterbury, who possessed the talents of a scholar and the 
virtues of the most pious, was so zealous in the cause, that 
it gave him great anxiety, and ultimately obliged him to 
retire and end his days in a kind of banishment. Robert 
Greathead, Bishop of Lincoln, though he ever professed 
great veneration for the successors of St. Peter, yet boldly 
refused institution to foreign clergymen presented to benefices 
in his diocese. He even took a journey to Rome, to remon- 
strate against these abuses ; which produced such effect upon 
the mind of the pontiff, as to make him seriously set about 
remedying the defect. 

About this time the mendicant orders began to make their 
appearance in England. The first convent of grey friars 
was at Canterbury, and another was soon after established in 
London. Nearly at the same time was suppressed the famous 
religious order of Knights Templars, and their lands were 
bestowed upon the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. The 
statute made for this purpose is worthy of remark, and runs 
thus : " It is agreed, ordained, and established by law for 
ever, that neither our lord the king, nor any other lord, nor 
an\ r other person, hath title or right to retain the aforesaid 
lands." And the reasons alleged for not alienating them 
were, "because such a conveyance would not discharge the 
obligations which lay upon them, which were, to defend 
Christianity, provide largely for the poor, and pray for souls 
departed." Had Henry VIII. at the dissolution of the mon- 
asteries attended to this, it might perhaps have raised a 
scruple in his mind. 

During the wars of Edward I. with the Scots, Pope Boni- 
face interfered, and dem.gji.ded that the bishops, abbots, and 



112 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 

nobles, who had been made prisoners by Edward, should be 
released. The letters of Edward in answer, seconded by 
those from the Barons, clearly shew what were the senti- 
ments of our ancestors with regard to the interference of the 
see of Rome in temporal matters. In them they informed 
the Pope, that Edward owed no submission to him in such 
eases ; that the Kings of England never were nor ever 
would be subject to any foreign power, either spiritual or 
temporal, in matters purely civil ; but as to obedience in 
things spiritual, they acknowledged themselves devoted to 
the see of Rome. 

The papal revenues, which were the source of mutual 
complaints and recriminations, still continued. They may be 
classed under three heads ; first, Peter Pence, a tax established 
under the Saxons, of one penny on every householder pos- 
sessed of thirty-pence in chattels, intended for the relief of 
English pilgrims; second, the grant made by John of 1,000 
marks, as an acknowledgment of vassalage, and therefore 
odious to the nation. This not having been regularly paid 
by John's successors, had considerably accumulated, till at 
last Pope Urban V. signified, that if the arrears were not 
paid, he would enter a process in his court for recovery of 
the penalties. Edward upon this called a Parliament, and 
communicated the papal demand. The prelates consulted 
together, and returned for answer, that neither John, nor 
any other person, could subject the kingdom to another 
power without the consent of the nation. In this the Barons 
and Commons unanimously agreed, and it was resolved, that 
if the Pope attempted to put his threat in execution, they 
would resist them to the utmost of their power. Upon 
this determination the question was abandoned by the Pope 
for ever. 

First-fruits was the third grievance ; this was a gift made 
by the bishop upon his consecration, and the priest at his or- 
dination, to the officiating prelates and attendants. In some 
dioceses it was exacted from even the inferior clergy, in the 
court of Rome, at every promotion obtained by papal provi- 
sions, and the amount at last arose to two, and even three years' 
income. These claims became from time to time the subject 
of parliamentary investigation ; various statutes were enacted, 
which in the end entirely put a stop to the influence of the see 
of Rome. 

About the year 1375, John Wycliffe first, began to broach 
his new doctrines. He had received his education at Oxford. 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 113 

and was a man of considerable learning, but of much greater 
pride and ambition. He had been disappointed in not getting 
the bishopric of Worcester, to which he aspired. His pride 
was hurt, and his temper soured ; he therefore commenced 
reformer, and promulgated his novelties, some of which 
were, that in the Blessed Eucharist, the substance of the 
bread and wine remains after consecration ; that a bishop in 
mortal sin cannot ordain ; that the Pope, if wicked, has no 
authority over the faithful; that auricular confessions are 
unnecessary ; that the clergy ought to have no temporal pos- 
sessions. These doctrines soon attracted the notice of the 
bishops : they assembled in synod, and cited him before 
them. In his answer, he acknowledged that his expressions 
were incorrect, and pretended that they must be understood 
in an orthodox sense. He promised in future not to disturb 
the public peace, and being strongly countenanced by John 
of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the mortal enemy of the 
clergy, he was suffered to depart without further censure ; 
but ceased not to disseminate his heresy till a paralytic attack 
suddenly hurried him out of life. His followers were called 
Lollards. 



CHAPTER III. 

Laws, Government, Commerce. 

During the reign of Henry II. several wise laws were 
enacted. The kingdom was divided into six circuits, and to 
each circuit were appointed three itinerant judges, who were 
sworn to administer justice. These circuits were nearly the 
same as at the present day. In the reign of his son and succes- 
sor, Richard I., the city of London received many important 
privileges, and was first divided into companies and corpora- 
tions. Under the government of Henry III., the difference 
which arose between the king and the nobles made England 
a scene of confusion. The people, however, obtained a 
confirmation of the great charter with the addition of new 
privileges. But the liberty of the subject made the greatest 
progress during the reign of Edward I., a prince who, on 
account of his numerous and prudent laws, has been called 
the English Justinian. But what renders this era particular- 
ly interesting, is the admission of the deputies of boroughs 

10* 



114 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 

into Parliament. In order to raise subsidies to support the 
wars in which Edward was engaged, he found himself obliged 
to resort to new resources, and endeavoured to obtain by the 
consent of the people what his predecessors had expected 
from their own power. The sheriffs were ordered to invite 
the towns and boroughs of the different counties to send 
deputies to Parliament, and from this period we may date the 
origin of the House of Commons. The great charter was 
confirmed by King Edward eleven times in the course of 
his reign; and at length, he converted into an established 
law, a privilege, which the nation had hitherto only precari- 
ously enjoyed, by decreeing, that no tax should be laid on, 
nor impost levied, without the joint consent of Lords and 
Commons. This most important statute, in conjunction with 
Magna Charta, forms the basis of the English constitution. 

The statute of mortmain was also enacted in this reign, for 
the purpose of prescribing some bounds to the zeal of our 
ancestors in alienating their lands to pious uses. It had been 
found that this custom was liable to several abuses, and that 
many worthy families had been wholly impoverished in con- 
sequence. It was, therefore, enacted, that for the future no 
lands should be settled upon any community without the ex- 
press license of the king and parliament. This statute was 
not very agreeable to the see of Rome, and was even disap- 
proved of by many learned and pious doctors of the church, 
though by many others equally eminent for their zeal, piety 
and learning, it was looked upon as a wise and prudent pro- 
vision. 

Under Edward II. the Commons began to annex petitions 
to the bills in which they granted subsidies. This was the 
dawn of their legislative authority. In the reign of Edward 
III., they declared they would not in future acknowledge 
any law to which they had not expressly consented. Soon 
after they asserted a privilege, which forms at this time one 
of the greatest balances of the constitution. They impeached, 
and procured to be condemned, some of the chief ministers 
of the state. 

The principal manufacture of England, in the era of which 
we now treat, was that of wool. This she owed to the fos- 
tering hand of Edward III., who gave great encouragement 
to foreign weavers, and enacted a law which prohibited every 
one from wearing cloth but of English fabric. The manu- 
factures of leather and lead were also considerable. 

The greater part of our domestic trade was still transacted 



ARTS, &e. 115 

at fairs, of which some were of long duration. That of St, 
Giles, near Winchester, continued sixteen days, during which 
all trade was prohibited within seven miles of the fair, which 
very much resembled a great city. In the beginning of the 
reign of Richard II., the Parliament complained of the decay 
of foreign commerce during the preceding reign, and assert- 
ed, that one seaport formerly contained more vessels than 
were then to be found in the whole kingdom. This calami- 
ty they ascribed to the arbitrary seizure of ships by Edward, 
for the service of his frequent expeditions. 

With regard to coin, the third Edward in 1344 struck 
florins of gold, which were ordered to pass for 6s., and the 
halves and quarters in proportion. Finding, however, that 
he had rated these pieces too highly, he coined the gold 
noble of 6s. 8d., and recalled the florins. 

The police of the kingdom was certainly much improved 
during this period, particularly in the third Edward's reign; 
yet were there several defects in the constitution, the bad 
consequences of which not all the power and vigilance of the 
King could prevent. The Barons, by their confederacies 
with those of their own order, and by supporting their retain- 
ers in all their iniquity, were the chief abettors of robbers 
and ruffians of all kinds, and no law could reach them. The 
Commons made frequent complaints of these robberies, mur- 
ders, and disorders, in every part of the kingdom, which they 
always ascribed to the protection the criminals received from 
the Barons. The king of Cyprus, who paid a visit to Eng- 
land in the reign of Edward III., was robbed and stript on 
the highway with the whole of his retinue. The King him- 
self contributed to this dissolution of the laws, by the facility 
with which he granted pardons to felons at the solicitation 
of his courtiers. 

Arts, 8rc. 

In the period we are now examining, if we except the 
possessions of the clergy, very little progress was made in 
agriculture. The country was almost always involved in 
wars, which diverted the attention of the people, and particu- 
larly of the nobility, from the improvement of their lands. 
The wretched tenure also by which the inferior farmers held 
their lands, was an effectual bar to every amendment of the 
soil. Gardening, under the immediate protection of the great, 
had better success ; every large castle, and every monastery, 



116 MANNERS. 

had its garden, orchard, and frequently its vineyard ; so that 
the English had a considerable quantity of wine of their own 
growth, not much inferior to foreign wine. 

With regard to architecture, many of the most admired 
cathedrals in England, viz. those of York, Salisbury, and 
Winchester, owe their existence to this period, which is gen- 
erally allowed to have produced the truest and fairest models 
of what is called the lighter gothic. The steeples with spires 
and pinnacles, the pillars formed of an assemblage of columns, 
the lofty windows divided into several lights by stone mul- 
lions, and always filled with glass stained with lively colours, 
stamp the sacred edifices of the thirteenth and fourteenth 
centuries. This rapid progress in architectural elegance was 
greatly assisted by a band of ingenious workmen of various 
countries, who forming themselves into societies under the 
title of "free-masons," offered their services to opulent 
princes. 

So great and general was the taste for paintings at this 
period, that not only churches and chapels and the apartments 
of the great, but also those of private persons, were orna- 
mented with historical pictures. Of sculpture, although it no 
doubt kept pace with its sister art, we have but few models, 
owing to the party zeal of the civil wars and the gothic bar- 
barity of the first-styled reformers. 

Though the poets of this age were as much admired by 
their contemporaries as those who flourished in later times, 
their works are generally neglected ; which is perhaps owing 
as much to the antiquated style in which they wrote as to 
the mediocrity of their talents. 

Manners. 

Of the age we are now delineating, one of the prominent 
features was unlimited hospitality. The courts of some of 
our kings were magnificent and numerous to a degree hardly 
credible. Stowe thus describes that of Richard II.: "His 
royalty was such, that wheresoever he lay, his person was 
guarded by 200 Cheshire men ; he had about him thirteen 
bishops, besides barons, knights, esquires and others; inso- 
much, that 10,000 people came to the household for meat 
every day, as appeared by the messes told out to 200 servi- 
tors." Some idea may be formed of the hospitality of the 
opulent barons from an account of the household expenses of 
the Earl of Lancaster in 1213, from which it appears that 



MANNERS. 117 

this nobleman expended in housekeeping during that year 
no less a sum than £7,300, equal to £100,000 of our present 
money. The nobility in general spent almost the whole of 
their revenues in this manner, at their castles in the country, 
-which were constantly open to strangers of condition, as well 
as to their own vassals and followers. This prodigality began 
to decline a little towards the end of this period ; some barons, 
instead of dining in their great hall with their numerous re- 
tainers according to ancient custom, chose to dine in private 
parlours with their families and friends; though this innova- 
tion was very unpopular, and subjected them who adopted it 
to much ill-will and reproach. 

The revival of chivalry by the Edwards, contributed not 
a little to promote valour and munificence among persons of 
condition. The candidate for knighthood, after giving suffi- 
cient proofs of his prowess and other virtues, prepared him- 
self by fasting, going to confession and communion, with 
other acts of devotion. He then took an oath of no fewer 
than twenty-six articles, in which, among other things, he 
swore that he would be a good, brave, loyal, just and gener- 
ous knight, a champion of the church, a protector of distressed 
females, and a redresser of the wrongs of widows and 
orphans. 

Chivalry declined in England during the inglorious reigns 
of King John and Henry III., but revived in the succeeding 
one, particularly in that of Edward III., who in this was in- 
fluenced by policy no less than by inclination. Having 
formed the design of asserting his claim to the crown of 
France, he endeavoured to inspire into his own subjects an 
enterprising spirit, and to entice as many valiant foreigners 
into his service as possible. With this view he celebrated 
several magnificent tournaments, to which he invited all 
strangers who delighted in feats of arms, entertained them with 
the greatest hospitality, and loaded such of them as excelled 
in these martial sports with honours and rewards, in order to 
attach them to his service : with the like view, and about the 
same time, he founded the order of the Garter, of which his 
heroic son the Black Prince was the first knight, and all the 
first companions were persons famous for their feats at tourna- 
ments, or in real war. In a word, chivalry, which is now an 
object of ridicule, was in those times an affair of the greatest 
moment, and had no small influence on the manners of the 
age and the fate of nations. 



118 MANNERS. 

The ridiculous and motley dress of this period was very 
justly a subject of bitter reprehension from the satirists of the 
time. What could exhibit a more fantastical appearance 
than an English beau of the fourteenth century ? He wore 
long pointed shoes, fastened to his knees by gold or silver 
chains, a stocking of one colour on one leg and one of another 
colour on the other ; short breeches which did not reach to 
the middle of his thighs ; a coat, one half black, the other 
half white or blue ; a long beard ; a silk hood, buttoned under 
his chin, embroidered with grotesque figures of animals, and 
ornamented with gold, silver, or precious stones. This dress 
was the height of the fashion in the reign of Edward HI. 
The dress of the ladies is thus described by Knyghton : "The 
tournaments are attended by many ladies of the first rank 
and greatest beauty dressed in party-coloured tunics. Their 
tippets are very short, their caps remarkably small and wrapt 
about their heads with cords. Their girdles are ornamented 
with gold and silver, and they wear short swords, like dag- 
gers, before them, which hang across their stomachs. They 
are mounted on the finest horses with the richest furniture, 
and thus equipped they ride from place to place, in quest of 
tournaments, by which they dissipate their fortunes, and often 
ruin their reputations." 

In the course of the fourteenth century, the Anglo-Saxon 
gradually changed into what may be called the English lan- 
guage. That animosity which had long subsisted between 
the posterity of the Normans and that of the Anglo-Saxons 
was now extinguished, and they were in a great measure 
consolidated into one people. Many of the Normans who 
were engaged in trade, agriculture, or manufactures, found 
it necessary to speak the language of the multitude, into 
which they introduced many French words and idioms. 
Besides this, Chaucer, Gower, and several others, composed 
a number of volumes in English ; and being men of learning, 
borrowed many expressions from the Greek and Latin, Italian 
and French languages, with which they enriched their own. 
But the mode of spelling was unsettled, and very different 
from the modern. Many words were then in common use 
which are now become obsolete, and the meaning of other 
very different from what it is at present. A knave for exam- 
ple signified a servant in opposition to a freeman ; and some- 
times a male in opposition to a female ; its modem meaning 
is well known. 



( 119) 
Incidents and curious Particulars. 

In 1246, Cheapside was a void space called Crown Field, 
from the Crown-Inn adjoining. The city lay more to the 
eastward. 

In 1327, Southwark having long been an asylum for 
rogues and vagabonds, was united to London, and placed 
under the power of the Lord Mayor and Aldermen. 

In 1283, say the annals of Dunstable, "we sold our slave 
by birth, William Pike, with all his family, and received one 
mark from the buyer." 

In 1302, the mariner's compass was invented. 

In 1316, on account of the great famine, the Parliament 
limited the price of provisions. An ox cost £2 8s. ; a fat 
hog, 105. ; a sheep, 3s. 6d. ; a fat goose, I7%d. ; a fat capon, 
6d. ; a fat hen, 3d. ; two dozen eggs, 3d. 

In 1340, guns were invented by Shwartz, a monk of Co- 
logne, as gunpowder had been some time before by our 
famous countryman Roger Bacon. 

In 1346, Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which 
contributed to gain the famous battle of Cressy. Bombs and 
mortars were invented about the same time. 

In 1386, was built the magnificent castle of Windsor, by 
Edward III., and his method of conducting the work may 
serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that 
age. Instead of engaging workmen by contracts and wages, 
he assessed every country in England to send him a certain 
number of masons, tilers, carpenters, &c. 



120 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

BOOK VI. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Boniface IX 1389 1 Alexander V 1409 

Innnocent VII 14041 John XXIII 1410 

Gregory XII 1406 I 

EMPERORS OF GERMAXT. 

Winceslaus 13781 Sigismund 1410 

Robert 1400 1 

EMPEROR OF THE EAST. 

Emanuel II 1331 

KINO OF FRANCE. 

Charles VI 1380 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Henry III 1390 1 John II 1406 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

John 1385 

SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK. 

Margaret 1385 1 Eric XIII 1411 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND 

Robert III 1390! James 1 1405 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

From the Deposition of Richard II. to that of Henry VI., 
including a period of about 86 Years. 



CHAPTER I. 

Henry IV., reigned 13 Years, 5 Months, 21 Bays. 

1399. — Henry, in possession of the great object of his 
ambition in prejudice to the elder branches of his family, 
soon found it was more easy to win a crown than to preserve 
it. For several years he was continually harassed, either 
by the hostility of foreign powers, who looked upon him as 
a usurper, or by the secret plots of his own subjects, some 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 12l 

of whom longed to avenge the fate of Richard ; others who 
had aided him in the acquisition of his throne, and thought 
themselves neglected. In Wales, Owen Glendower, de- 
scended from the ancient princes of that country, had become 
obnoxious on account of his attachment to the late king, 
and Lord de Grey, who had a great fortune in the marches 
of Wales, availed himself of that circumstance to seize upon 
his neighbour's estate. Glendower recovered possession by 
the sword. Henry sent assistance to Lord de Grey, while 
the Welsh took part with Glendower, and a tedious war was 
kindled, in which the Welsh chieftain gave remarkable 
proofs of his bravery and activity. 

The Scots, taking advantage of these discontents, renewed 
their excursions. Archibald, Earl of Douglass, on his re- 
turn from one of these border inroads, was overtaken by the 
Percies. A bloody battle ensued; the Scots were totally 
routed, and Douglass himself, with many of the nobility and 
gentry, were taken prisoners. When Henry received intel- 
ligence of this victory, he sent a message to the Earl, not 
to receive ransom for his prisoners, intending to detain them, 
in order to conclude an advantageous peace with Scotland. 
But the Earl, according to the laws of war in that age, re- 
garding them as his right, was greatly disgusted at the mes- 
sage, and the more so, as he considered himself the principal 
person to whom Henry was indebted for the crown. The 
impatient spirit of his son Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, 
and the factious disposition of the Earl of Worcester, inflam- 
ed still more the resentment of the Earl. He immediately 
entered into a conspiracy with Glendower, gave liberty to 
Earl Douglass, with whom he had made an alliance, and 
roused all his friends to arms. But on account of the Earl's 
real or political illness, young Percy took the command of 
the troops, and marched towards Shrewsbury, in order to 
join his forces to those of Glendower. The King with a 
few chosen troops met Percy near Shrewsbury, before his 
intended junction with Glendower. The policy of the one 
leader and the impetuosity of the other, immediately brought 
on a battle. On the preceding evening, Percy published a 
manifesto, in which, after renouncing his allegiance, he enu- 
merated all the grievances of the nation. Among these, he 
charged him with usurpation on the house of Mortimer, who 
had a prior right to the throne, being the immediate descend- 
ants of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the elder brother of the 
late Duke of Lancaster. 

11 



122 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

The armies were nearly equal in number, consisting of 
about 12,000 men each, and we scarcely find any battle in 
those ages, where the shock was more terrible, or the con- 
flict more obstinate. Henry exposed his person in the thick- 
est of the fight. His gallant son the Prince of Wales, whose 
military achievements were afterwards so renowned, and 
who here performed his noviciate in arms, signalized himself 
greatly, and though wounded in the face by an arrow, would 
not quit the field. On the other side, Percy well supported 
that fame which he had acquired in many a bloody combat, 
and was nobly seconded by Douglass amidst the horror and 
confusion of the day. But while the armies were contend- 
ing in this furious and equal contest, the death of Percy, by 
an arrow from an unknown hand, decided the victory in 
favour of the royalists. 

The Earl of Northumberland was on his march to join 
his son, when he heard of his defeat. He immediately dis- 
missed his forces, and with a small retinue went to the King 
at York, pretending that his sole intention in arming was to 
mediate between the parties. Henry appeared satisfied 
with this excuse, and granted him pardon. Unable, how- 
ever, to repress his enmity to the King, the Earl afterwards 
joined in a fresh rebellion, and at length lost his life in the 
cause. 

Henry, thus freed, by the death of Northumberland and 
that of Glendower, which happened soon after, from all his 
domestic enemies, endeavoured to regain the popularity he 
had lost by his severe measures. The House of Commons 
upon this occasion became sensible of their own importance, 
and began to assume powers which had not usually been 
exercised by their predecessors. Among other advances of 
this kind, in the sixth year of Henry's reign, when they 
voted him supplies, they appointed treasurers of their own, 
to see that the money was disbursed for the purpose intend- 
ed. Henry died at Westminster, in the forty-sixth year of 
his age, leaving behind him the reputation of a prudent and 
political prince, but of a suspicious and unfeeling character. 
He had by his first wife, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the 
Earl of Hereford, four sons, viz. Henry, his successor; 
Thomas, Duke of Clarence ; John, Duke of Bedford ; Hum- 
phrey, Duke of Gloucester ; and two daughters. His 
second wife, Jane, daughter of the king of Navarre, had 
no issue 






THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

Cotemporary Princes. 



POPES. 

John XXIII 1410 1 Martin V 1417 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Sigismund 1410 

EMPEROR OF THE EAST. 

Emanuel II 1391 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Charles VI 1380 

KING OF SPAIN. 

John II 1406 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

John 1386 

KING OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

Eric XIII 1418 

KING OF SCOTLAND. 

James 1 1405 



Henry V., reigned 9 Years, 4 Months, 11 Days. 

1413. — Henry V. succeeded to the throne. He had for a 
considerable time been the object of his father's unreasonable 
suspicions, arising from his own dissolute life, and the jeal- 
ous disposition of Henry- His active spirit, unemployed in 
I affairs of state, broke out into the wildest extravagance of 
riot and debauchery, which threw him among companions 
totally unworthy of his rank and station. One of these 
associates had been indicted before Sir Wm. Gascoigne, the 
Chief Justice, for disorderly conduct ; and Henry was not 
ashamed to appear at the bar with the criminal, to give him 
countenance and protection. Finding that his presence did 
not overawe the judge, he proceeded to insult him on his 
tribunal. But Gascoigne, mindful of his dignity, ordered 
the prince to be immediately committed, and Henry had the 
magnanimity at once to submit peaceably to the sentence. 
All this time the nation in general had considered the young 
prince with more indulgence than his father, and had observ- 
ed so many gleams of generosity and spirit, breaking through 
his misconduct, that they never lost hopes of his ultimate 
reformation. 

The first step taken by the young king, confirmed those 
prepossessions in his favour. He immediately dismissed the 
companions of his dissolute courses, and received the wise 



124 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

ministers of his father, who had checked his riots, with all 
the marks of favour and confidence. As it was the dying 
request of the late King not to allow the English to remain 
long at peace, which was apt to breed internal commotion, 
Henry determined to take advantage of the confusion which 
reigned in France through the contentions of the Dukes of 
Orleans and Burgundy, each of whom aspired to the ad- 
ministration of affairs. He accordingly assembled a large 
fleet and army at Southampton, in order to invade that 
kingdom, and landed near Harfleur, at the head of 6,000 
men at arms, and 24,000 foot, mostly archers. 

Harfleur was immediately besieged, and taken, after a 
vigorous resistance ; but the unusual heat of the weather 
and the fatigues of the siege, had so wasted the English 
army, that Henry could enter on no further enterprise, and 
was obliged to thank of returning to England. As he had 
dismissed his transports, he lay under the necessity of march- 
ing to Calais ; and while he was pursuing this route, contin- 
ually harassed by the enemy, his provisions cut off and his 
soldiers languishing with sickness and fatigue, he was over- 
taken by the whole French army, consisting of ten times the 
number of his diminished force, under the command of the 
Constable D' Albert, drawn up on the plains of Agincourt. 
Henry's situation was now exactly similar to that of Edward 
at Cressy, and of the Black Prince at Poictiers. The mem- 
ory of those great events inspired the English with courage, 
in the hope of a like deliverance from their present difficul- 
ties. As the enemy was so superior in number, Henry drew 
up his army on a narrow ground between two woods to 
cover each flank, and patiently awaited in that position the 
fury of the attack. Had the French general declined the 
combat, the English must have relinquished the advantages 
of their situation. But the impetuous valour of their nobil- 
ity, and a vain confidence in their superior numbers, brought 
on an action, which proved glorious to the English arms. 
The battle began by a shower of arrows from the English 
archers, which did great execution. The French cavalry 
advancing to repel them, two hundred bowmen, who lay 
till then concealed, rising on a sudden, let fly among them, 
and produced such confusion, that the archers threw by their 
arrows, and rushing in among them sword in hand, obliged 
them immediately to give way. In every part of the field 
they were overthrown, and their numbers becoming crowded 
together in a narrow space, they were incapable of re.>isN. 



I 



T HE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 125 

ance or flight, so that the ground was covered with heaps of 
slain. After all appearance of opposition was over, an alarm 
was heard in the camp, which proceeded from a number of 
peasants who had fallen upon the English baggage, and were 
putting the unarmed followers of the camp to the sword. 
Henry, seeing the enemy on all sides, began to entertain ap- 
prehensions from his prisoners, the number of whom exceed- 
ed that of his whole army, He thought it necessary to issue 
orders for putting them to death. But on discovering the 
certainty of his victory, he stopped the slaughter, and was 
still able to save a great number. In this battle, celebrated 
by the name of the battle of Agincourt, the killed amounted 
to 10,000 men, and 14,000 were made prisoners, while the 
loss of the English did not amount to more than forty-six. 
Henry, without discontinuing his march a moment, carried 
his prisoners to Calais, and thence to England. 

France was at this period in a wretched situation ; the 
whole kingdom appeared as one vast theatre of crimes, mur- 
ders, injustice and devastation. The Duke of Orleans was 
assassinated by the Duke of Burgundy, and the Duke of 
Burgundy, in his turn, by the treachery of the Dauphin. 
Upon the death of the Dauphin, the Count Armagnac, a 
nobleman of great talents, succeeded to the administration 
of affairs. Anxious to recover Harfleur, he would not listen 
to any proposals of peace which was attempted to be medi- 
ated by the Emperor Sigismund, of Austria, and other 
princes, but with a fleet of French and Genoese vessels he 
blockaded the harbour of that town, and closely invested it 
on the land side. The Duke of Bedford was sent with a 
fleet of English vessels to relieve the place. He bore down 
on the enemy ; but finding his vessels greatly inferior in size 
to those of the Genoese, he gave orders to board. The Eng- 
lish instantly climbing the lofty sides of the enemy's ships, 
soon drove them from the deck, and made themselves masters 
of their vessels. Most of the French ships had already 
struck, a few escaped up the river, and the town was 
relieved. 

Such was the state of affairs in France when Henry land- 
ed in Normandy, at the head of 25,000 men, and after re- 
ducing several places, threatened Paris, whence the terror 
of his arms had obliged the French court to remove to Troyes. 
The imbecility into which Charles had fallen, rendering him 
passive in every transaction, a treaty was entered into, wherein 
it was agreed, that Henry should espouse the Princess Cathe- 

11* 



126 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

rine, daughter of the King of France; that Charles, during 
his life, should enjoy the title of king ; that Henry should 
be acknowledged heir of the monarchy, and be intrusted 
with the present administration of the government, and that 
the kingdom should pass to his heirs general. In a few 
days after Henry espoused Catherine, and carrying his fa- 
ther-in-law to Paris, took possession of that capital. He 
then turned his arms against the Dauphin, who had assumed 
the style and title of Regent, and to crown his good fortune, 
his queen was delivered of a son, whose birth was celebrated 
at Paris by rejoicings no less pompous than at London. The 
infant king seemed to be universally regarded as the future 
heir of both monarchies. But the glory of Henry, when it 
had nearly reached its summit, was stopt short by the hand 
of Providence. He was seized by a disorder which the 
surgeons of that time had not skill enough to cure, and died 
in the thirty-fourth year of his age. 

This prince possessed many eminent virtues. His abili- 
ties appeared equally in the field and in the cabinet. He 
had the talent of attaching his friends by affability, and of 
gaining his enemies by address and clemency. The English, 
dazzled by the lustre of his character, were reconciled to 
the defects in his title ; and the French, by his marriage 
with Catherine the daughter of their king, almost forgot that 
he had been their enemy. He left by his Queen only one 
son, not quite nine months old, who succeeded to the throne. 
Catherine soon after his death married Sir Owen Tudor, a 
Welch gentleman, by whom she had two sons ; the elder 
was created Earl of Richmond, and the second Earl of Pem- 
broke. The family of Tudor, first raised to distinction by 
this alliance, afterwards mounted the throne of England. 



Cotemporary Princes. 



Calistus III 1455 

Pius II 1458 



Martin V. , 1417 

Eugenius IV 1431 

Nicholas V 1447 

EMPERORS OF GF.RMAXT. 

Sigismund 1410 I Frederic III 1440 

Albert II 14381 

EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 

Emanuel II 1391 1 Constantino III., the last Chris- 
John VII 14291 tian emperor 1453 









THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 127 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Charles VI 13801 Charles VII 1422 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

John II 1406 | Henry IV 1454 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

John 1385|Alphonsus V 1438 

Edward 14331 

KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

Eric 1411 [Christian 1448 

Christopher III 1439 I 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

James 14051 James III 1460 

James II v. 14371 



Henry VI., reigned 38 Years, 6 Months, 4 Days, 

14*2*2. — Henry VI., surnamed of Windsor, being a minor, 
the affairs of the government were conducted by his two 
uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, men of great 
courage, integrity, and accomplishments, but unable to pre- 
serve their brother's conquests. Upon the death of Charles 
VI. the affections of the French for his family revived in 
I the person of his son and successor Charles VII., who was 
: crowned at Chartres, Rheims being in possession of the 
i English. The war was immediately recommenced with 
fresh vigour; many battles were fought, generally to the 
advantage of the English, who at last laid siege to Orleans, 
the capture of which would have completed the conquest 
of France ; but a sudden revolution was produced in that 
kingdom, by means apparently the least likely to be attended 
with success. 

In a village on the borders of Lorraine lived a country 
girl called Joan. This girl had been a servant at a small inn, 
and in that service had submitted to those hardy employ- 
ments which fit the body for the fatigues of war. She was 
of an irreproachable character, and had hitherto testified 
none of those enterprising qualities which displayed them- 
selves soon after. Whether, however, she really believed 
that she was inspired from above, or made herself the instru- 
ment of some political genius, who took in this manner 
advantage of the age, she felt or pretended to feel the 
impulses which she related to the governor of Vancouleur, 
informing him of her destination by heaven to free her 



128 TIIR nous:; or Lancaster. 

native country from its fierce invaders. Baudricou'-t the- 
governor treated her, or appeared to do so at first, with neg- 
lect, but her importunities at length prevailed : he gave her" 
some attendants, who conducted her to the French court. 
Here it was given out that Joan was actually inspired ; that 
she was able to discover the king among his courtiers, 
though he had laid aside all the distinctions of royalty ; that 
she had told him some secrets known only to himself, and 
that she had demanded and minutely described a sword in 
the church of St. Catherine, which she had never seen. In 
this manner the minds of the soldiers and the people being 
prepared for her appearance, she was armed cap-a-pie, 
mounted on a charger, and shewn in that martial dress to the 
populace and soldiers. She was then taken before the doc- 
tors of the university, who declared she had actually received 
her mission from heaven. Joan now undertook to raise the 
siege of Orleans, and ordering all the soldiers to confess 
themselves, displayed in her hand a consecrated banner, and 
assured the troops of certain victory. Her confidence raised 
the spirits of the French soldiers to enthusiasm, and at the 
same time infused trepidation into the English. The siege 
of Orleans was immediately raised, and one victory followed 
another, till at length the French king was solemnly crowned 
at Rheims, as Joan had predicted. A tide of success fol- 
lowed the performance of this solemnity ; but Joan, who had 
thrown herself into Compeigne with a body of troops, was 
taken prisoner in a sally by the Duke of Burgundy, who 
was besieging that city. 

The Duke of Bedford was no sooner informed of her cap- 
ture, than he purchased her of the Count Vendome, and 
ordered her to be immediately tried by the ecclesiastical 
court: who found her guilty of heresy and witchcraft, and 
sentenced her to be burnt. 

After her condemnation, several attempts were made to 
induce her to acknowledge her imposture : but she remained 
firm till the fatal day arrived ; then, however, yielding to 
her terrors, she acknowledged with tears her delusion , and 
was remanded to prison. She, however, relapsed into her 
former errors, and was, according to the laws of those cre- 
dulous times, delivered to the executioners, and burnt at the 
stake. Here she continued obstinate till she saw the fire 
kindled at her feet: then she burst into loud screams and 
exclamations, and was seen in the midst of the flames 
embracing a crucifix, foretelling, as some French writers 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 129 

mention, the total discomfiture of the English. Be this as 
it may, the affairs of the English in France became from 
that time totally irretrievable, till at length they had nothing 
left of all their conquests but Calais. 

In proportion as Henry advanced in years, his character 
more fully displayed itself. Of the most inoffensive and 
simple manners, but of very slender capacity, he was fitted 
to be governed by those who surrounded him, and it was 
easy to foresee that his reign would prove a perpetual minor- 
ity. As he had now reached the age of manhood, it was 
necessary to think of choosing him a queen, and each party 
endeavoured to make him receive one at their hands ; it 
being probable that, this point gained, their influence would 
be established for ever. The Cardinal of Winchester proved 
successful, and Hemy was married to Margaret of Anjou, 
daughter of Regnier, titular king of Sicily, Naples, and 
Jerusalem, descended from a Count of Anjou, who had left 
these magnificent titles to his posterity, without any real 
power or possessions. She immediately entered into close 
union with the Cardinal and his party, who, thus fortified by 
her powerful interest, resolved upon the downfal of the Duke 
of Gloucester, who was obnoxious to the Queen, upon 
account of his opposing her marriage. The Duke had already 
received a cruel mortification from his rivals. His Duchess 
was accused of witchcraft, and condemned to do public 
penance, after which she was ordered into perpetual impri- 
sonment. The people, however, acquitted the unhappy suf- 
ferer, and attributed the whole to the malice of the Duke's 
enemies. The Queen and her party, therefore, became 
sensible, that it was necessary to destroy a man whose popu- 
larity made him dangerous, and whose resentment they hacf 
so much cause to dread. They contrived to bring an accur 
sation of treason against him, upon which he was arrested, 
thrown into prison, and the next day found dead in his bed'. 
His body, which bore no outward marks of violence, was 
publicly exposed ; but no one doubted that he had fallen a 
victim to the vengeance of his enemies. His murder excited 
general abhorrence, and laid a foundation for the troubles 
which ensued. 

Various commotions, arising from the discontents of the 
people, broke out, that were soon suppressed ; but one took 
place in Kent which was attended with more serious conse- 
quences. Jack Cade, a native of Ireland, a man of low 
condition, who had been obliged, for his crimes, to flee into 



130 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

France, observing, on his return, this disposition in the peo- 
ple, assumed the name of Mortimer, and, at the head of 
20,000 Kentish men, encamped on Blackheath, in his way 
to the capital, in order, as he gave out, to obtain a redress 
of grievances. The city opened its gates to him, and for 
some time he maintained great order and discipline among 
his followers. But at length, not being able to restrain them 
from plunder, the citizens, assisted by a detachment from the 
Tower, repulsed the rebels with great slaughter. The Kent- 
ish men were so discouraged by this blow, that, upon 
receiving a general pardon, they retreated towards Roches- 
ter, and there dispersed. Cade fled into the woods ; but a 
price being set upon his head by proclamation, he was dis- 
covered by a gentleman in Sussex, and slain. Some of his 
followers were also capitally punished for their rebellion. It 
was imagined that the Duke of York had been the secret 
instigator in this attempt, and his partisans, in all conversa- 
tions, took occasion to assert his title to the crown ; but the 
Duke conducted himself with great prudence, and even 
when no apparent obstacle lay between him and the throne, 
he was prevented, by scruples or his fears, from mounting 
it. In the mean while, the king was seized with a distem- 
per which so far increased his natural imbecility, as to ren- 
der him incapable of maintaining even the appearance of 
royalty ; upon which the Duke of York got himself appointed 
lieutenant of the kingdom, with powers to open and hold a 
parliament. No sooner, however, was Henry so far recov- 
ered as to carry the appearance of exercising the royal 
power, than his queen, a woman of a bold spirit and mascu- 
line understanding, advised him to disannul the protector- 
ship of the Duke, and place the administration in the hands 
of the Earl of Somerset. Richard immediately had recourse 
to arms, and a battle was fought near St. Alban's, in which 
the Yorkists proved victorious, and the king himself fell into 
the hands of the conquerors. This was the first blood spilt 
in that fatal quarrel between the house of York, designated 
by the emblem of a white rose, and that of Lancaster by a 
red one. This fatal contest lasted thirty years, was signal- 
ized by twelve pitched battles, cost the lives of eighty 
princes of the blood, more than 100,000 men, and almost 
entirely annihilated the ancient nobility of England. 

Various were the turns of success during this contest. A 
battle was fought at Bloreheath, which terminated in favour 
of the Duke ; but Henry, under the direction of Marga- 



THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 131 

ret, coming within sight of his foes, who were strongly 
intrenched before Ludlow, made proclamation that " who- 
ever would abandon the Duke of York should be pardoned." 
Upon which Sir Andrew Trollope deserted, and discovered 
all the Duke's plans. This so disconcerted the Yorkists, that 
they separated without striking a blow. In a third battle, 
fought at Northampton, the Yorkists, under the command of 
the famous Earl of Warwick, and the Earl of March, the 
Duke's son, gained a complete victory, and the King a 
second time fell into the hands of the victors. The Duke 
of York, who was then in Ireland, receiving the news of 
this victory, immediately embarked for England, and 
throwing off the mask, claimed the crown. After long 
debates in Parliament, it was finally agreed, that Henry 
should continue in possession of the throne till his death, 
and that on his demise it should devolve to Richard and his 
heirs. 

The Queen, who was in the north at this juncture, refused 
to submit to a determination so injurious to her son. The 
Duke of York, therefore, immediately marched to give her 
.battle ; but engaging her army with too small a body of men, 
his army was entirely routed, and he himself slain, with 
many of his bravest followers. The Duke's chaplain, who 
was likewise tutor to his son, seeing the ill success of the 
day, attempted to escape with his pupil, a child of twelve 
years old ; but Lord Clifford discovering the lad, inhumanly 
stabbed him to the heart with his dagger. 

Upon the death of the Duke of York, Warwick took the 
command of the forces belonging to that party, and came up 
with the Queen at St. Alban's. Another battle ensued, in 
which the Earl was defeated, and the King once more fell 
into the hands of his own party. 

Edward, the young Duke of York, now appeared at the 
head of the cause. This prince was remarkable for his 
bravery, activity, and affability. He soon found himself so 
much in the public favour, that he immediately asserted his 
claim, and assumed the title and dignity of king. Having 
expelled Margaret from London, he assembled the people, 
and haranguing them, was proclaimed king by the surround- 
ing multitude ; and the proclamation was ratified by a great 
number of bishops and lords, under the title of Edward IV. 

Here, according to most writers, ends the inglorious reign 
of the weak but pious Henry. A prince of much sweetness 
of disposition ; so chaste, that, when at a public mask, some 



13*2 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

ladies presented themselves before him with their bosoms 
uncovered, he immediately rose up, and exclaimed against 
their behaviour ; so merciful, that when he saw the quarters 
of a traitor over Cripplegate, he caused them to be taken 
down, declaring " he would have no Christian so cruelly 
used for his sake ;" and so resigned to the will of God, and 
patient under affronts, that to one who struck him when he 
was taken prisoner, he meekly replied : " You wrong your- 
self more than me, to strike the Lord's anointed." 

Edward, soon after his coronation, became enamoured of 
Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey, and privately espoused 
her, although he had sent the Earl of Warwick to demand 
the sister of the French king in marriage. In this embassy 
the Earl was successful, and nothing remained but to bring 
the princess to England. Edward was now obliged to 
declare his marriage, which so inflamed the indignation of 
Warwick, that from his best friend and supporter, he became 
his bitterest enemy. To compass his revenge, he espoused 
the cause of Henry ; and by the assistance of Lewis VI. of 
France, Henry was again replaced on the throne, whilst 
Edward narrowly escaped to Holland. Nine months after 
he returned, was received in the capital, and king Henry 
was once more made prisoner. Edward now finding him- 
self sufficiently supported to face Warwick, who had taken 
post at Barnet, marched from London to attack him ; and 
being joined the night before the battle by his brother Cla- 
rence, who upon this occasion deserted his father-in-law, 
victory declared itself in his favour. The Earl, after per- 
forming prodigies of valour, lost his life in the engagement, 
as did a great many of his adherents. 

The same day on which this decisive battle was fought, 
Queen Margaret and her son, a young prince of great hopes, 
now about eighteen, landed at Weymouth, supported by a 
small body of French troops. She was greatly discouraged 
at the unhappy tidings ; but resuming her former spirit, she 
determined to defend to the utmost her fallen fortunes. For 
this purpose she advanced through the counties of Devon, 
Somerset, and Gloucester, towards the north : but at 
Tewkesbury she was overtaken, and a battle ensued, in which 
she was entirely defeated and taken prisoner, together with 
her son. The young prince, being brought before Edward, 
was asked by him how he dared to invade his dominions ; 
he replied, with much intrepidity, that he came to claim his 
just inheritance. Edward, enraged at Ins answer, brutally 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 133 

struck him on the face with his gauntlet. This was a signal 
for further violence, and the Dukes of Clarence and Glou- 
cester, with some other noblemen, hurrying him into the 
next apartment, there dispatched him with their daggers. 
Margaret was thrown into the Tower, and the meek Henry, 
as is generally reported, was murdered by the Duke of 
Gloucester. Thus all the hopes of the house of Lancaster 
seemed utterly extinguished. As to Margaret, after having 
sustained the cause of her husband with a masculine cou- 
rage in twelve battles, and survived her friends, her fortune, 
and her children, she was ransomed for 50,000 crowns, and 
died a few years after in France. 



CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Affairs, 8fc. 

The reign of Henry IV. affords the first example of a 
capital execution for the crime of heresy. For a long period 
the clergy had been assailed with every opprobrious epithet 
by the followers of WyclifFe, which they had borne with 
exemplary charity. These deluded men now no longer 
confined themselves to abusive words, but proceeded to 
instigate the people not to pay their tithes ; and endea- 
voured, by artful contrivances, to procure the confiscation 
of all ecclesiastical property. Henry, therefore, found it 
necessary to call a convocation, iri which his commissioners 
exhorted the bishops to take measures for the suppression of 
the errors disseminated by the itinerant preachers : an act 
was accordingly passed for the suppression of the new sect, 
and the protection of the church. The act recites, that if 
any person convicted shall refuse to abjure such doctrines, 
or relapse after having abjured, he shall be burnt on a high 
place before the people. 

Almost immediately after passing this act, a petition was 
presented by one William Sawtree, begging to be allowed 
to dispute on the subject of religion before them. Sawtree 
had, two years before, been convicted of heresy, and deprived 
of his 'living; but, on his recantation had been admitted a 
chaplain at St. Osyth's, in London. His request was granted, 
and he became a victim to his senseless enthusiasm. He 

12 



134 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, kc. 

was delivered to the sheriff, and burnt as a malefactor, in 
the presence of an immense multitude of the people. 

This severity, however, had not the desired effect. Their 
doctrines spread the more widely, and their animosity was 
redoubled. At their head was Lord Cobham, generally 
known by the name of Sir John Oldcastle, who had distin- 
guished himself by his valour and military talents, virtues 
which, at all times, gain greatly on the affections of the peo- 
ple. Emboldened by their numbers, they threatened that, 
if any opposition should be employed by the government to 
their doctrine, they would assemble 100,000 men in its 
defence. The author of this menace was found to be Old- 
castle. He fled, but was taken by a military force, and 
conveyed to the Tower, whence he found means to escape, 
determined on revenge. To effect this, he appointed a gen- 
eral rendezvous, intending to seize the king, and put their 
opponents to the sword. But their design was discovered ; 
they were dispersed, and the ringleaders executed. Sir 
John Oldcastle escaped, and for some time eluded the pur- 
suit of his enemies ; but he was at length taken. Being 
arraigned, and asked what he had to say, he declared that 
he did not acknowledge the jurisdiction of that court, whilst 
his lawful king, Richard II., was alive. He was instantly 
sentenced to be hanged as a traitor, and afterwards to be 
burnt as a heretic ; which sentence was accordingly executed 
in St. Giles's Fields, having at the gallows prophesied that he 
would rise from the grave the third day, the non-accom- 
plishment of which very much staggered the faith of his 
Credulous followers. 

Henry V., who had discarded all his former dissolute 
companions, and become an example of modesty, piety, and 
regularity, shewed no less zeal in inquiring into various 
abuses which his predecessors had fallen into ; who, when 
they seized alien benefices, had often bestowed part of the 
revenues upon the laity. These he rectified to the best of his 
power, ordering the religious houses to be repaired, or trans- 
ferring the vacancies to other communities. 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 135 

CHAPTER III. 

Laws, Government, Commerce. 

Although the constitution, government, and laws of 
England had not yet arrived at that excellence to which 
the} r have since attained, they were continually improved in 
the course of this period, and much exceeded those of any 
other state in Europe. Philip de Comines, after describing 
the disorders that reigned in the governments of France, 
Germany, and Italy, and the cruel oppressions under which 
the people of those countries groaned, concludes in this 
manner: " In my opinion, of all the states m the world that 
I know, England is the country where the commonwealth is 
best governed, and the people least oppressed." This arose, 
principally, from the increasing importance and authority of 
the House of Commons, occasioned partly by the pecuniary 
wants of the kings, the defective title of Henry IV., and the 
civil wars, which obliged the adverse parties to court the 
affections of the people, and exert themselves to procure the 
election of their respective friends. The partiality, how- 
ever, of the sheriffs, who being chosen by those in power 
often made undue returns, provoked the remonstrance of the 
Commons, and, as a remedy, two statutes were enacted. 
The first provided, that in the next county court held after 
the delivery of the writ, the election should be immediately 
commenced, and that the names of the chosen candidates 
should be - certified by an indenture, under the seal of all 
those who had voted in their favour. By the second, a she- 
riff making a false return was fined £100. Freedom from 
arrest was a privilege long enjoyed by the members of the 
Commons equally With the Lords, and now most strictly 
enforced. Freedom of debate, a privilege still more impor- 
tant, which had been considerably impaired during the reign 
of Richard II., recovered its former stability. Under the 
protection of this privilege, the Commons introduced the 
practice of addressing the King by word of mouth, instead 
of committing their petitions to writing. They also firmly 
established, in the various applications of the king for sup- 
plies, the right to vote the money of the nation, to appro- 
priate it to particular services, to enquire into the disposal of 



136 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE. 

it, and all grievances tending to increase the burthens of the 
people. 

During the reign of Henry V. the Commons obtained a 
confirmation of their claim, that no statute should be valid 
unless it were enacted with their assent ; and to their often 
renewed complaint, that their petitions were so altered by 
omissions and additions, that, when published, the law was 
often quite contrary to its original intention, the King replied, 
that henceforth nothing should be enacted contrary to their 
petitions. 

Under Henry VI. the Commons continued to grow in 
importance : several statutes were enacted for the entire 
security of the members, and for the regulation of elec- 
tions. They, moreover, exercised the right of impeaching 
those ministers who had forfeited the confidence of the 
nation. 

During this period the number of judges in the courts of 
Westminster were not fixed, there being sometimes six, 
seven, or eight in the court of Common Pleas. Their sala- 
ries were very small. The Chief Justice had only £ 10 per 
year, and the others only £30, till Henry VI., by letters- 
patent, granted to the former £160, and to the latter £100. 
But besides his salary, every judge had a certain quantity 
of silk, linen, and furs for his robes out of the royal ward- 
robe. The annual salary of the Attorney-General was only 
£10, about £150 of the present money. When a judge 
was admitted into his office, he took a solemn oath that he 
would not receive any fees, pension, gift, reward, or bribe 
of any man having a suit or plea before him, except meat 
and drink, which should be of no great value. 

Some excellent laws for the regulation and encouragement 
of trade were made in the reign of Edward IV., who, though 
so much engaged in war, paid great attention to commerce, j 
Foreign trade was not then conducted as it is at present. 
Merchants did not usually carry their goods to the ports 
where they were to be finally disposed of, but to certain 
emporia, called staple cities, in which they met with cus- 
tomers from the countries where their goods were wanted. 
This appears to have been in part caused by the imperfect 
state of navigation, which made long voyages tedious, as 
likewise to the number of pirates that infested the seas. t 
Merchants, therefore, of distant countries divided the fatigue 
and danger, by meeting each other halfway. Bruges in 
Flanders was the emporium of Europe in those days ; and 



ARTS, MANNERS, &c. 137 

so great was the resort to it from the Mediterranean and the 
Baltic, that 150 ships were seen to arrive at its harbour of 
Sluys in one day. 

Henry V. was as victorious by sea as by land. In his 
reign the fleets of England rode triumphant on the narrow 
seas. At his first invasion of prance, he had two large and 
beautiful ships, in imitation of the Venetian carracks, which, 
with those of Genoa, were often seen in the British har- 
bours. The one was called the King's Chamber, and the 
other his Hall. 

The new coins of this period were nobles and angels, 
worth 10*. and 14s. of our present money. They were 
much admired both at home and abroad for their purity and 
beauty. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Arts, Maimers, fyc. 

The style of architecture commonly called Gothic, was, 
at this period, carried to the highest perfection. Of this 
lofty and bold style of building, several specimens remain 
entire. Of this kind are the chapel of King's College, Cam- 
bridge, that of St. George at Windsor, the Divinity School at 
Oxford, and the College Church at Edinburgh-. 

The changes introduced into the art of war, by the inven- 
tion of gunpowder, were slow. The martial adventurers of 
those times were too much attached to the arms they had. 
been accustomed to, and they could not at once find machines 
fit to manage an agent so violent in its effects as gunpowder 
was. Some of their cannon were enormously large, dis- 
charging balls of 500 pounds weight, and required fifty 
horses to draw them. The balls were chiefly made of stone. 

About the end of the fourteenth century, playing cards 
were introduced into France by a painter of Paris, for the 
amusement of the unhappy prince, Charles VI., in his lucid 
intervals. They were gilded and illuminated with, no little 
skill and labour, which greatly augmented their value, the 
price of a pack being no less than 18s. &d., a very consider- 
able sum in those days. 

It was during this period that the art of printing was 
invented on the Continent, and introduced into this island.. 
One Corsellis began to print at Oxford in 1468 ; but it was. 

12* 



138 ARTS, MANNERS, &c. 

William Caxton, a mercer of London, who claimed the 
honour of first introducing into England the art of printing 
with fusile types in 1474. 

Chivalry, one of the most remarkable peculiarities in the 
manners of the middle ages, began to decline in the fifteenth 
century. The country was too much engaged in real bat- 
tles, to attend to the representation of them. 

The hospitality of all ranks, but particularly of the great 
and opulent, was very remarkable. " Neville, Earl of War- 
wick/' says Stowe, " was ever held in great favour by the 
commons of the land, on account of his hospitality, in all 
places wherever he went ; and when he came to London he 
kept such a house, that six oxen were eaten at a breakfast, 
and every tavern was full of his meat." The entertainments 
of the Barons were kept with great state and ceremony, but 
not with equal neatness or delicacy. The lord sat in state 
in his great hall, at the head of a long clumsy oaken board, 
and his guests were seated on each side on long benches, 
according to their rank. The table was loaded with large 
pewter dishes filled with meat, venison, poultry, sea-fowls, 
wild-fowls, game, and fish. The sideboards were well fur- 
nished with ale and wine, which were given to the company 
in pewter or wooden cups, by the grooms, yeomen, and 
waiters, all ranged in order. They made generally four 
meals a day, viz. their breakfast about seven, dinner at ten, 
supper at four, and their liveries at eight or nine. 

The English were remarkable, at this period, for the dis- 
graceful and profane practice of swearing. When the 
Earls of Warwick and Stafford visited the Maid of Orleans, 
in prison, to induce her to acknowledge her delusion, she 
said, "I know that you English are determined to put me 
to death, vainly imagining that then you will conquer all 
France ; but I tell you, that although there were 100,000 of 
your swearing countrymen in France, they will never con- 
quer it." It is mentioned as a praiseworthy singularity, that 
Henry VI. did not swear in conversation, but often reproved 
his officers of state for so odious a habit, now almost univer- 
sally exploded from every polite company. 



TIIE HOUSE OF YORK. 139 

BOOKVII. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Pius II 1458 1 Sextus IV 1471 

Paul II 1464 1 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Frederic III 1440 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Mahomet II 1453iBajazet II 1481 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Louis XI 1461 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Henry IV 1454 [Isabella and Ferdinand . . . 1474 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

Alphonsus V. 1438 1 John II 1481 

KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

Christian 1440lJohn 1481 

KING OF SCOTLAND. 

James III 1460 



CHAPTER I. 
MILITARY HISTORY. 

THE HOUSE OF YORfe. 

Including a Space of 24 Years. 

Edward IV., reigned 22 Years, 1 Month, 5 Days. 

1461. — As peace was now restored to the nation, Edward 
convoked a parliament, which ratified, as usual, the acts 
of the conqueror, and recognised his legal authority. But 
this prince, who had been so active, firm, and intrepid 
in danger, was unable to resist the allurements of pleasure, 
the intoxication of success, or the gratification of revenge. 
Among his other cruelties, his conduct to his brother Cla- 
rence is the most atrocious. Though the Duke had rendered 
him a signal service, by deserting Warwick just before the 
battle near Barnet, he could never regain his affection or 
confidence, and a trivial incident gave Edward an opportu- 



140 THE HOUSE OF YOTiK. 

nity to wreak his vengeance upon him, which was also- 
excited by the insinuations of the Duke of Gloucester. The 
King hunting one day, in the park of Thomas Burdett, 
killed a white buck, which was a great favourite with the 
owner. Burdett, vexed at the loss, in the heat of his pas- 
sion wished the horns of the deer in the body of the person 
who had advised the insult. As he was a dependent of the 
Duke of Clarence, this hasty expression was considered 
unpardonable by the vindictive Edward, and he caused the 
unfortunate complainant to be tried and executed. The 
Duke, unable to contain himself, exclaimed publicly against 
the iniquity of the sentence. For this he was committed to 
the Tower, and being summoned before the House of Lords, 
where the King himself appeared against him as his accuser, 
he was condemned to die. He was then closely confined in 
the Tower, and soon after found drowned in a butt of malm- 
sey ; a manner of death of which, it is said, he had himself 
made choice. 

Whilst the King was thus indulging his cruelty and dissi- 
pation, he was somewhat roused by a prospect of foreign 
conquest. Having formed a league with the Duke of Bur- 
gundy, he crossed the seas at the head of 10,000 men, to 
invade the French dominions. He did not, however, meet 
with the assistance he expected from the Duke, and with- 
drew after obliging the French king to pay him down 75,000 
crowns, and agree to send him annually 50,000 more during 
their joint lives. Some time after, whilst preparing for 
another attack on the French monarchy, he was seized with 
a distemper, of which he expired, in the forty-second year 
of his age, leaving two sons : Edward, Prince of Wales, in 
his thirteenth year; and Richard, Duke of York, in his 
ninth. He had also five daughters. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

SextusIV 1471 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Frederic III 1440 

EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. 

Bajazet II 1481 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Uuis XI 1461 i Charles VIII 14S3 



THE HOUSE OF YORK. ]41 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Isabella and Ferdinand 1474 

KINO OF FOJITUGAL. 

John II 1481 

KINO OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

John 1481 

KING OF SCOTLAND. 

James III 1460 



Edward V., reigned 2 Months, 12 Days. 

1 183. — Edward V., on his accession, received the oaths 
of the principal nobles, and his uncle the Duke of Glouces- 
ter was made protector of the kingdom. No sooner w r as he 
invested with this dignity by the council, than, under pre- 
tence of guarding the young king and his brother, he sent 
them both to the Tower. He had, hitherto, concealed the 
villainy of his character by the deepest dissimulation ; but 
having now the power in his hands, he no longer hesitated 
to remove all obstruction between him and the throne. For 
this purpose, he first secured to his interest the Duke of 
Buckingham, a man of talents and power, by bribes, and 
promises of future favour. He then attempted to attach 
Lord Hastings tQ his party; but finding him determined in 
his fidelity to Edward's children, he resolved to cut him off. 
Having summoned a council in the Tower, he entered, with 
an angry countenance, and asked, what those deserved who 
had plotted against his life ? Hastings immediately answered, 
that they merited the punishment of traitors. " These trai- 
tors," cried Richard, " are that sorceress my brother's wife, 
and Jane Shore, his mistress. See to what a condition I am 
reduced by their spells." Upon this, he laid bare his arm, 
all shrivelled and decayed. The councillors, who knew that 
this infirmity had attended him from his youth, looked at 
each other in silent amaze: but Hastings cried out, "If 
they have committed this crime, they deserve the severest 
punishment." "If!" cried the protector: " Dost thou answer 
me with ifs ? I tell thee they have conspired my death, 
and thou, traitor, art accomplice in the crime." He then 
struck the table twice with his hand, and the room was 
instantly filled with armed men. " I arrest thee," continued 
be to Hastings, " for high treason ;" and at the same moment 



142 THE HOUSE OF YORK. 

the soldiers hurried him to the court-yard of the Tower, 
where he was beheaded on a log of wood ; Gloucester cry- 
ing out, "Bv St. Paul, he would not dine till he saw his 
head off." 

Jane Shore, the late King's mistress, was the next victim. 
This unfortunate woman was an enemy too humble to excite 
his jealousy; but having accused her of witchcraft, of which 
all the world knew her to be innocent, he thought fit to 
make her an example for the faults of which she was really 
guilty. The charge of adultery was too notorious to be 
denied; she acknowledged her guilt, and was condemned to 
walk barefooted through the city, and do public penance at 
St. Paul's in a white sheet, with a wax taper in her hand. 
She lived about forty years after this sentence, and was 
reduced to the most extreme indigence ; a standing memo- 
rial of the punishment and disgrace which usually attend 
the commission of such enormities. 

The violence exercised against the nearest connexions of 
the late king, prognosticated the severest fate to his defence- 
less children ; as, after the murder of Hastings, the Protector 
no longer concealed his intention of aspiring to the crown. 
He first endeavoured to prove the illegitimacy of Edward's 
children. He next ordered the Mayor of London, whom he 
had gained to his interest, to call an assembly of the citizens ; 
but though the Duke of Buckingham, a man of great elo- 
quence, harangued them on Richard's title, and talked much 
of his virtues, no mark of approbation followed. A few only 
of the meanest of the people, and the servants of the Duke, 
raised a feeble cry of " God save King Richard." As this 
was interpreted by the Mayor into the voice of the nation, 
they repaired immediately "to Richard and offered him the 
crown, which with apparent reluctance he accepted. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPKS. 

Sextus IV 1471 [Innocent VIII 1434 

KMPKItOK OF GKHMA.W. 

Frederic III 1440 

EMPEROR OF THE TL'HKS. 

Bajazet II 14SI 

KlVn OF FTliNCK. 

Paries VIII 1483 



THE HOUSE OF YORK'. ]43 

KIMi OF SPAIN. 

Isabella and Ferdinand 1474 

KINO OF 1'onTUOA.E. 

John II 1481 

KINO OF SCOTLAND. 

James III 1460 

KING OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

John 1481 



Richard III., reigned 2 Years, 2 Months. 

1483. — Richard was no sooner seated on the throne than, 
sending for the governor of the Tower, he ordered him to put 
the two young princes to death. But that brave man, Sir 
Robert Brackenbury, nobly refused to imbrue his hands in 
innocent blood ; a fit instrument was, however, soon found. 
Sir James Tyrrell readily undertook the office, and Bracken- 
bury was ordered to resign the keys for one night. By that 
wretch and his associates, the young princes were suffocated 
as they lay asleep, and their bodies buried under a heap of 
stones at the foot of the stairs. But while Richard thus 
endeavoured to secure his usurped power, he found it menaced 
in a quarter whence he least expected opposition. The Duke 
of Buckingham, who had been so instrumental in placing him 
on the throne, was become disgusted at the refusal of some 
confiscated lands which he had solicited. He therefore cast 
his eyes towards Henry, the young Earl of Richmond, who 
was descended from John of Gaunt. A match was agreed 
upon between Richmond and the eldest daughter of Edward 
IV. The Queen-dowager sent over to the Earl a sum of 
money, promising to join him, on his landing, with all the 
friends and partizans of her family. 

Matters being thus arranged, the Duke of Buckingham 
withdrew into Wales, to raise an army ; but at that very time 
the Severn became so swoln, that it was impassable. The 
Welch, affrighted at this unforeseen event, and in great want 
of provisions, separated immediately, notwithstanding all his 
solicitations. Buckingham, finding himself deserted, put on 
a disguise, and sought refuge with an old servant of his house, 
who basely betrayed him to Richard. He was taken to Salis- 
bury, and instantly beheaded. 

In the mean time, the Earl of Richmond had collected a 
small body of troops, with which he set sail from Harfleur, 



|44 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILI 

and landed at Milford Haven without opposition. The King, 
who was at Nottingham, hastened to meet him with 12,000 
men, while Henry's army had not increased to half that 
number. The battle began at Bosworth near Leicester. 
Soon after the commencement of the attack, Lord Stanley, 
who had posted himself at Atherston, appeared in the field 
and joined the Earl of Richmond. This unexpected move- 
ment caused great consternation in Richard's army, and in- 
spired a proportional courage in that of Henry. The tyrant, 
sensible of his desperate situation, fought with unexampled 
fury to the last moment, till borne down by numbers, he met 
a death too honourable for his multiplied crimes and horrid 
cruelties. 

The crown which Richard wore during the battle wa.s 
brought to Henry, and placed on his head by Lord Stanley, 
who immediately saluted him king, amidst the repeated 
acclamations of the whole army. 

* Thus ended the contentions of the Plantagenets, and with 
them, the wars which had desolated England during thirty 
years. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Innocent VIII 14841 Pius III 1503 

Alexander VI 1492 I Julius II 1503 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

Frederic III i . . . . 1440 J Maximilian 1493 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Charles VIII 1483 1 Louis XII 1498' 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Isabella and Ferdinand 1474 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

John II 1481 

KING OF SCOTLANO. 

James III 1460 1 James IV 1487 J 



The Union of the Two Families in the House of Tudor. 

Henry VI L, reigned 23 Years, 8 Months. 

1485. — Henry's title was immediately confirmed by the 
Parliament, and his prudent marriage with the Princess 
Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV., united the claims, 
of both families, and caused universal joy to the nation, which 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 145 

now looked forward to peace and security. But Henry, with 
all his prudence and policy, could not overcome his antipathy 
to the adherents of the House of York. The joy which the 
people evinced, on his union with the Queen, arising from 
the prospect of a happy termination of the wars which had 
desolated the country, was interpreted, by his suspicious 
temper, into a predilection of the people for the House of 
York. This not only disturbed the public tranquillity during 
his reign, but was the cause of much uneasiness to his con- 
sort, and embittered all his domestic happiness. 

He confined in the Tower Edward Plantagenet, Earl of 
Warwick, son of the late Duke of Clarence. This unhappy 
young prince had been formerly detained in a like confine- 
ment at Sheriff-Hutton, Yorkshire, by the jealousy of his 
uncle Richard. A comparison was now drawn between 
Henry and that tyrant, and as the Tower was the place where 
the children of Edward had been murdered, a similar fate 
was feared for Warwick. While compassion was thus excited 
for youth and innocence exposed to oppression, a report was 
spread that Warwick had made his escape. A general joy 
shewed itself on every countenance, and many seemed will- 
ing to join him. So favourable an opportunity was not neg- 
lected by the king's enemies. Richard Simon, a priest of 
Oxford, and a zealous partizan of the House of York, attempt- 
ed to take advantage of the popular rumours, by holding up 
an impostor to the nation. For this purpose he cast his eyes 
upon Lambert Simnel, a baker's son. This youth, who was 
endowed with an understanding beyond his years, and an 
address above his condition, was instructed to assume the name 
and character of the Earl of Warwick. He soon appeared 
so perfect in many particulars, that the Queen-dowager was 
supposed to be his chief instructress. As the imposture, 
however, could not bear too close an inspection, it was agreed 
to make the first attempt in Ireland, which was zealously 
attached to the House of York. No sooner was this intelli- 
gence conveyed to the king, than he ordered Warwick to be 
taken from the Tower, and led in procession through the streets 
of London. But this expedient proved effectual only in 
England, for Simnel was strongly supported in Ireland ; and 
being joined by Lord Lovel and the Earl of Lincoln, together 
with a body of German troops, furnished by Margaret of 
Burgundy, sister to Edward IV., he landed at Foudrey, in 
Lancashire, and advanced towards Coventry. Henry, well 
informed of all these movements, assembled his troops, under 

13 



146 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

the command of the Duke of Bedford. A bloody battle was 
fought near Stoke, in Nottinghamshire, in which the Earl 
of Lincoln lost his life. Lord Lovel disappeared after the 
battle, and was never heard of afterwards. Simnel, and his 
tutor Simon, were taken prisoners. Simon was committed 
to close confinement, and Simnel, being too contemptible to 
be a cause of further apprehension, was made a scullion in 
the king's kitchen, and subsequently advanced to the rank 
of falconer. 

The Duchess of Burgundy, not discouraged by the ill suc- 
cess of Simnel's enterprise, and full of resentment for the 
depression of her family, propagated a report that her nephew, 
Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, had escaped from the 
Tower when his brother was murdered, and still lay some- 
where concealed. She then got one Perkin Warbeck to per- 
sonate him. The resemblance he bore to Edward IV., and 
the sagacity of his genius, rendered him a proper subject for 
the purpose. 

Ireland, which still retained its attachment to the House 
of York, was again chosen as the proper theatre for Perkin's 
appearance ; he accordingly landed at Cork, and assuming 
the name of Richard Plantagenet, drew to him many parti- 
zans. The King of France, glad of any opportunity to de- 
press his rival, sent for him, and received him with all the 
marks of regard due to a'Royal House. Thence he went to 
the court of the Duchess of Burgundy, who after a pretended 
scrutiny into his claims, embraced him as her nephew, and 
on all occasions honoured him with the appellation of "the 
White Rose of England." The king, by means of his spies, 
soon discovered the whole plan of the confederacy, together 
with the pedigree of the pretended Duke of York, which he 
published for the satisfaction of the nation. Perkin, finding 
that the king's authority continued firmly fixed, and that his 
own pretensions were becoming obsolete, resolved to attempt 
something to revive the hopes of his party. He, accordingly, 
endeavoured to land in Kent : but was repulsed. Some time 
after, he repaired to Scotland, where King James, believing 
the story of his birth, gave him in marriage his own relation, 
Catharine Gordon, daughter of the Earl of Huntley, eminent 
for her virtue and beauty. As there subsisted at this time,; 
a considerable degree of jealousy between the courts of Eng- 
land and Scotland, James determined to support the claims 
of Perkin ; and, accordingly, entered England with a con- 
siderable force. Finding, however, that the pretensions of 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 147 

Perkln were but little credited, and that a formidable army- 
was marching to oppose him, he withdrew into Scotland. 
Henry thought this a fit pretence to levy impositions on his 
own subjects. He summoned a parliament, which granted 
him a large subsidy ; but he found it more difficult to col- 
lect it from his subjects, who were well acquainted with the 
great treasures he had amassed ; and could, therefore, ill 
brook new impositions raised upon every slight occasion. 
The people of Cornwall, headed by one Michael Joseph, a 
farmer of Bodmin, and Thomas Flammoc, a lawyer, armed 
themselves with what weapons they could procure, and 
marched towards London, to deliver a petition, as they said, 
to the king, for redress. When they reached Wells, they 
were joined by Lord Audley, and, emboldened by the coun- 
tenace of so considerable a person, they marched to Eltham, 
near London. But not having met with any reinforcements 
on the road, they were very easily overcome by a body of 
forces sent against them under the command of Lord Oxford, 
and their leaders were executed. Perkin, after various 
unfortunate adventures, fell into the hands of the King, 
and was confined in the Tower; whence endeavouring 
to escape, with the real Earl of Warwick, they were dis- 
covered and executed. Perkin was hanged, and the Earl 
beheaded. 

In 1499, the King married his eldest son, Arthur, to Catha- 
rine of Spain. The young prince, however, died in the 
course of a few months, much regretted by the nation. 
Henry, desirous of continuing the alliance, and unwilling to 
restore Catharine's large dowry, caused his second son, 
Henry, to be contracted to her. Margaret, his eldest daugh- 
ter, was soon after sent with a magnificent train to Scotland, 
where she was married to James IV. 

In the latter part of the King's reign his economy degen- 
erated into avarice, and he oppressed the people in a very 
arbitrary manner. He had two ministers, Empson and 
Dudley, perfectly qualified to second his avaricious designs. 
They were both lawyers, and usually committed to prison, 
by indictment, the unfortunate objects of their extortion, 
seldom releasing them but on the payment of heavy fines. 
By degrees they omitted the very forms of law, and confis- 
cated, in a summary way, the properties of the people to the 
royal treasury. The decline of Henry's health, however, 
made him enter seriously into himself, and he endeavoured 
to make atonement for his rapacity by distributing alms an3 



148 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

founding religious houses. He died of the gout in his 
stomach, at his favourite palace of Richmond, in the 52d 
year of his age. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 



Clement VII 1523 

Paul III 1534 



Julius II. 1503 

Leo X 1513 

Adrian VI 1521 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

Maximilian 1493 I Charles V 1519 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Bajazet II 1481 I Solomon II 1520 

Selim 1512 I 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Louis XII 1498 1 Francis 1515 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Isabella and Ferdinand . . . 1474 1 Charles V 1516 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

Emanuel 1495 1 John III 1512 

KINGS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

John 1481 1 Christian II 1513 

DENMARK ALONE. 

Frederic ........... 1524 f Christian III. ........ 1533 

SWEEDEN ALONE. 

Gustavus Vasa 1522 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

James IV 1487 1 Mary 1542 

James V. 15131 



1509. — Henry VIII. , reigned 37 Years, 9 Months, 15 Days. 

The accession of Henry VIII., in the 18th year of his 
age, gave universal joy to the people. The beauty and 
vigour of his person, accompanied by dexterity in eveiy 
manly exercise, added to a knowledge of literature far be- 
yond his age, gave promising hopes of his becoming the idol 
of the people. As the contending titles of York and Lan- 
caster were now, at last, fully united in his person, men justly 
expected, from a prince obnoxious to no party, that peace 
and impartiality of administration which had long been 
unknown in England. To increase the hopes of the nation, 
jnany of the informers who had been the instruments of 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 149 

extortion in his father's reign were thrown into prison ; 
others put in the pillory, where some, by the violence of 
the populace, lost their lives. Empson and Dudley, who 
were the most obnoxious to the popular hatred, were sent 
to the Tower, and soon after executed. But the young 
king, naturally lavish and fond of magnificent sports, soon 
dissipated his father's treasures : and this led him to seek 
for a minister who would enable him to gratify his extrava- 
gant disposition. He was not long in finding one to com- 
ply with all his inclinations, and flatter him in all the 
schemes to which his impetuous temper impelled him. This 
was Thomas Wolsey, Dean of Lincoln, and Almoner to the 
King. He was the son of an obscure person at Ipswich, 
but having received a learned education, and being endowed 
with an excellent capacity, he was employed by Henry in 
some secret negotiations, which he dispatched so much to 
the satisfaction of the King, that he rose high in his favour. 
Admitted into his parties of pleasure, he took the lead in 
every gaiety ; nor were his years, which were about forty, 
nor his character as a clergyman, any restraint upon his con- 
duct. He became daily more necessary to Henry, who ad- 
vanced him to be a member of the council, and, shortly after, 
sole and absolute minister. 

Encouraged by Wolsey, and impelled by his natural tem- 
per, Henry made the most expensive preparations, by sea 
and land, to invade France. Attended by an immense train 
of nobles, he set sail for Calais, whence he marched to lay 
siege to Teroiianne, on the frontier of Picardy, into which 
the French endeavoured to throw succours. As soon as he 
had received intelligence of the approach of the French 
cavalry, he sent some troops to oppose them ; when, not- 
withstanding they consisted chiefly of gentlemen who had 
behaved with great gallantry, they precipitately fled at the 
sight of the English. They were pursued, and many officers 
of distinction made prisoners, among whom was the famous 
Chevalier Bayard. From this hasty flight of the French, 
the action was called "the battle of spurs." After this ad- 
vantage, the intimidation among the enemy was so great, 
that Henry, who was at the head of 50,000 men, might 
have made incursions to the gates of Paris. Never was the 
French monarchy in greater danger, or less in a condition 
to defend itself against the powerful armies which assailed 
it on every side. But Lewis was extricated from his present 
difficulties by the blunders of his enemies ; and Henry, 

13* 



150 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

after taking Tournay, returned to England, much elated with 
a success, which, in reality, no ways compensated for the 
ruinous expense it had occasioned. 

During Henry's absence from his kingdom, the Scots, 
instigated by Lewis of France, had made an irruption into 
England. The Earl of Surry immediately marched to op- 
pose them, and meeting them at Flodden Field, gave them 
battle. The conflict proved most disastrous to the Scots ; ten 
thousand of their troops were slain, among which number 
were many nobles, and the king himself, whose body was 
recognised, after the battle, by Lord Dacre, and conveyed 
by him to Berwick, whence it was sent to London, and inter- 
red with suitable honours. A peace was shortly after con- 
eluded with the King of France, who married Mary, sister 
of Henry. Henry, upon the death of Maximilian, became 
a candidate for the German empire : but soon resigned his 
pretensions to the two great rivals, Francis I. of France, and 
Charles of Austria, king of Spain, who was elected in 1519. 
The conduct of Henry, in the long and bloody wars between 
those two potentates, was chiefly directed by Wolsey's views 
upon the Popedom, which he hoped to gain by Charles's 
interest; but finding himself twice deceived, he revenged 
himself by persuading his master to declare for Francis, who 
had been taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia. Henry, 
however, continued to be the dupe of both parties, and to- 
pay great part of their expenses, until, the treasures which 
his father had amassed being exhausted, he was obliged to 
impose heavy fines upon his subjects. 

Henry had now been married nearly eighteen years to 
Catharine of Arragon, when an event happened, that in its 
consequences proved most disastrous to the kingdom. This 
was his unlawful passion for Anna Boleyn, a lady of great 
beauty, but of a very irregular and loose character. Finding, 
after various attempts, that he could not satisfy his inordinate 
desires without espousing her, he determined to divorce the 
Queen. To effect this, he pretended to be very uneasy ii 
his conscience concerning the legitimacy of his marriage 
with Catharine, and his scruples were encouraged by Wol- 
sey, who took this method to revenge himself on the Empe- 
ror Charles, whose maternal aunt she was. Henry, there- 
fore, applied to the Court of Rome for the repeal of the bull 
of Pope Julius, by which he had been allowed to marry 
Catharine. The Pope, unwilling to exasperate Henry, yet 
Gfeterniuied not to consent to so unjust an act, permitted the 



THE USMQSi OF THE TWO FAMILIES 151 

cause to be tried m England by a legating court, where Car- 
dinals Wolsey and Campcggio, both subjects of his Majesty,. 
were to sit as judges ; his Holiness, at the same time, con- 
senting to give a bull of divorce conditionally, should the 
sentence be given in court. The Queen, however, as was 
foreseen by the Court of Rome, refused to acknowledge their 
jurisdiction, and appealed to the Pope. Upon this the two 
Cardinals received orders to put an end to the sessions in 
England, and adjourn them to the consistorial court of Rome. 

Wolsey w r as now in as great a dilemma as his master. On 
the one hand, he wished to please the King ; on the other, 
he feared to disoblige the Pope, whose legate he was, and 
who, moreover, could punish him for his disobedience. He 
resolved, therefore, to remain neuter ; but this temporising 
scheme highly irritated the King, although he stifled his 
resentment until he could act with more fa tal certainty. For 
this end, he sought out a man of equal abilities and greater 
boldness. Nor was it long before accident threw in his way 
Thomas Cranmer, a doctor of divinity. He had been fellow 
of Jesus' College, and had kept his preferment, till his mar- 
riage with an innkeeper's daughter was discovered, when he 
was obliged to part with it. Having thrown out some hints 
relative to the King's divorce, he was admitted chaplain into 
the family of Sir Thomas Boleyn, and by him introduced ta 
the King, who immediately employed him abroad in forward- 
ing the divorce. 

Tn the mean time Wolsey, at the instigation of Anne 
Boleyn and her friends, who mortally hated him, had been 
deprived of all his places and emoluments, and at last was 
arrested on a charge of high treason. Broken down by his 
disgraces, he was obliged to travel slowly, and at length, 
finding his strength rapidly decline, he reached the monas- 
tery at Leicester, w T here, as he entered the gate, he said to the 
abbot, " Father, I am come to lay my bones among you." 
He was immediately conveyed to bed, and on the second 
day, seeing the lieutenant of the Tower, who had come to 
conduct him, he said, "Master Kyngston, had I but served 
God as diligently as I have served my king, he would not 
have given me up in my grey hairs. But this is my just 
reward for all my pains and study, not regarding my service 
to God, but only my duty to the prince." He expired the 
next morning, in the 60th year of his age. 

The death of William Wareham made room for Cranmer, 
who was immediately promoted to the see of Canterbury, 



15-2 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

notwithstanding he had, after the death of his first wife, mar- 
ried another privately, whilst he was in Germany. Soon 
after his elevation the King, who had already got himself 
declared head of the English church, appointed Cranmer 
to call an assembly, where Cranmer sat as judge, and 
pronounced the sentence of divorce. Henry had caused 
the marriage ceremony to be privately performed between 
himself and Anne Boleyn, some months before ; Cranmer 
now ratified it, and it was afterwards confirmed by Act of 
Parliament in 1534. 

The King's passion, however, for Anne Boleyn was soon 
palled by satiety. He now became enamoured of Jane Sey- 
mour, who had for some time been maid of honour to the 
Queen. Ann Boleyn was, therefore, to be disposed of. 
She was accordingly accused of adultery, tried, and behead- 
ed. The very next day Henry married Jane Seymour ; 
his cruel heart being no ways softened by the wretched 
fate of one who had so lately been the object of his warmest 
affection. He, moreover, ordered his parliament to pro- 
nounce a divorce between the time of her sentence and 
execution ; thus endeavouring to illegitimise Elizabeth, whom 
he had by her; as he had formerly done by Mary, his only 
child by Queen Catharine. Jane Seymour died in childbed 
of Edward, who afterwards succeeded to the throne ; when 
Henry, to connect himself with the Lutheran Princes of 
Germany, and by that means to mortify the Pope and the 
Emperor, contracted a marriage with Ann of Cleves. His 
aversion from her, however, increased from the first day of 
their marriage ; till at length he resolved to get rid of her, 
and his prime minister, Cromwell, who had been the chief 
contriver of the marriage. He had, moreover, become ena- 
moured of Catherine Howard, niece to the Duke of Nor- 
folk, and to gratify his new passion, he once more discarded 
his present queen to make room for a new one. As for 
Cromwell, he was tried and condemned for heresy and high 
treason, and was beheaded, deeply regretting his past mis- 
conduct, and declaring, that though he had been often led 
astray, he died in the catholic apostolic faith. Henry was 
now so captivated with his new queen, that he ordered pub- 
lic thanks for the happy event. But his joy was of short 
duration : he soon received information of her incontinence, 
and she was tried and condemned by the same servile Par- 
liament, with an additional petition to the King, that the 
punishment of death should be inflicted not only on the 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 153 

Queen, but also on her grandmother the Duchess-dowager 
of Norfolk, together with her father, mother, the Lady Roch- 
ford, and nine others. The petition the King was graciously 
pleased to grant, and the Queen and Lady Rochford suffered 
death soon alter. 

To forward his plans against the see of Rome, and detach 
the Scots from their alliance with France, Henry proposed 
to James, his nephew, the king of Scotland, to meet him at 
York ; but the Queen and his friends, alarmed at the conse- 
quences which might result from such an interview, prevail- 
ed on James to decline it. Enraged at this neglect, Henry 
vowed revenge, and sent the Duke of Norfolk with an army 
to ravage his territories ; but, on observing that James had a 
superior force, the Duke withdrew, and the Scottish army 
refused to follow them. Shortly after, Maxwell, the Scots 
general, w r as ordered to invade Cumberland : but James gave 
private orders that upon the army's entering England, the 
supreme command should devolve on his favourite, Oliver 
Sinclair, which so disgusted the troops that they fled without 
striking a blow. This disgrace so affected James, that he 
was seized with a fever which caused his death. He left a 
daughter, the celebrated Mary Queen of Scots. 

Upon the news of this success, Henry projected the 
union of Scotland with England, by the marriage of his 
son Edward to the heiress of that kingdom. But in the 
mean time, jealous of the connexion between Scotland and 
France, he entered into a league with the emperor. The 
campaign which followed was not productive of any affair 
of importance. 

About a year after the death of his late queen, Henry 
once more changed his condition by marrying his sixth and 
last wife, Catharine Parr, widow of the late Lord Latimer. 
She had the good fortune to survive him, although she nar- 
rowly escaped, as she was suspected, by the King, of favour- 
ing the doctrines of Luther. 

Henry's cruelty increased with his years, and he exercised 
it promiscuously on Protestant and Catholic : on the former, 
for adhering to the new doctrine ; on the latter, for acknow- 
ledging the Pope's supremacy. He put to death the brave 
Earl of Surry; and his father, the Duke of Norfolk, must 
have suffered the same fate had not the King's death timely 
intervened. His health had long been in a declining state; 
but, though for several days all near him plainly saw his 
end approaching, he had become so violent that no one durst 



154 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

declare it to him ; till at last Sir Anthony Denny under- 
took the ungrateful task. The King received the intelligence 
with more composure than was expected, and gave orders 
that Cranmer should be sent for ; but when he arrived the 
King was speechless. Cranmer asked him to give some 
sign of his belief in Jesus Christ : when the King gently 
shook his hand, and expired shortly after, in the 56th year 
of his age. Thus died the wretched Henry, without the 
consolations of that religion he had so greatly outraged. A 
few weeks before his death he made his will, by which he 
left his crown, first to prince Edward, then to the Lady 
Mary, and lastly to the Lady Elizabeth. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Paul III 1534! Julius III 1550 

EMPEROR OF GERMANT AND KING OF SPAIN. 

Charles V 1519 

EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. 

Solomon II 1520 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Francis 1515 j Henry II 1547 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

John III 1521 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Christian II 1534 

KING OF SWEDEN. 

Gustavas Vasa 1522 

aUEEN OF SCOTLAND. 

Mary 1542 



Edward VI. , reigned 6 Years, 5 Months, 9 Days. 

1547. — Edward VI. was only in the ninth year of his 
age when he succeeded to the throne. The late king had 
appointed sixteen executors of his will, to whom, during the 
minority of his son, which he had fixed till the age of eigh- 
teen, he entrusted the care of the minor and the government 
of the realm. Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, the young 
king's maternal uncle, now created Duke of Somerset, and 
a great promoter of the Reformation, by his influence and 
that of his party was appointed Protector, and for some time 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 155 

governed the kingdom with uncontrolled authority ; but his 
rapacity, tyranny, and cruel disposition soon brought on his 
downfal. He was arrested by the Duke of Norfolk, his 
mortal enemy, and, together with his wife and some others 
of his party, thrown into prison. The heads of his accusa- 
tion were, that he had endeavoured to excite a rebellion in 
London, to raise an insurrection in the North, to secure the 
Tower, and to attack the train bands on a muster day. The 
charges he firmly denied, but confessed that he had intended 
to murder Northumberland, Northampton, and Pembroke, 
at a banquet. He was soon after tried, found guilty, and 
beheaded on Tower-hill. Northumberland, who had long 
aimed at the chief authority, having thus got rid of his rival, 
saw still more alluring prospects for his ambition. He 
represented to Edward, that Mary and Elizabeth had been 
declared illegitimate by the Parliament ; that the Queen of 
Scots was excluded by the king's will, and that the succes- 
sion, therefore, devolved to the Lady Jane Grey. The King, 
entirely governed by this designing minister, agreed to have 
the succession submitted to council, and as Northumberland 
had a complete control over its members, their concurrence 
was easily obtained. 

The young King's health now visibly declined, and the artful 
minister, to strengthen his interest, procured for the Marquess 
of Dorset, father to Lady Jane, the title of Duke of Suffolk, 
and then proposed a marriage between his fourth son. Lord 
Guildford Dudley, and the Lady Jane. Edward, languish- 
ing under the fatal symptoms of his disorder, consented to 
all the suggestions of Dudley, and a new entail of the crown 
was made under Edward's own hand in favour of the Lady 
Jane. The judges were then summoned, and Edward 
informed them, that on account of the dangers to which the 
religion of the country would be exposed by the succession 
of the Princess Mary, he had resolved to alter the succession. 
The judges represented that the succession had been enacted 
by an act of Parliament, and could only be altered in the 
same manner. They, however, at last had the weakness to 
yield ; the fear of being obliged, by the Princess Mary, to 
restore the goods of the church,, and the threats and promises 
of Dudley, prevailed, and they signed the deed. Among 
them was Cranmer, the Archbishop. 

From the moment the Dudleys had been about the person 
of the young king, his health had been observed to decline, 
and now he was put under the hands of an ignorant woman, 



156 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

who very confidently undertook his cure. After the use of 
her medicines, all the bad symptoms increased in a violent 
degree, and prognosticated his approaching dissolution, which 
took place in the sixteenth year of his age, 1553. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Julius III 1550 I Paul IV . 1655 

Marcellus II 1555 1 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Charles V 1519 

EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. 

Soliman II 1520 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Henry II 1547 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Philip II 1555 1 Ferdinand 1558 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

John III 1521 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Frederic II 1559 

KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

Gustavus Vasa 1552 1 Eric X 1556 

aUEEN OF SCOTLAND. 

Mary 1542 



Mary, reigned 5 Years, 4 Months, 11 Days. 

1553. — Mary was near London when she heard of the 
death of her brother, and of Dudley's attempts to set the 
crown on the head of his daughter-in-law. Aware of her 
danger, she retired to Norfolk, where she found a number 
of persons ready to support her claim. Many noblemen 
soon joining her party, she was proclaimed at Norwich. 
Northumberland lost no time : assembling a body of troops, 
he marched towards Cambridge; but no sooner had he 
quitted London, than the people with one accord declared 
for Mary, and summoned the Duke of Suffolk to surrender 
the Tower, of which he had taken possession, and the Lady 
Jane to abdicate the royal dignity. The news of this rising 
of the people was no sooner conveyed to Northumberland's 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 157 

army, than the greater part deserted him ; and in this des* 
perate state of his affairs he was constrained to cry out like 
the rest, " Long live Queen Mary." The Queen proceeded 
immediately to London, which she entered amidst the accla- 
mations of the people, and was peaceably settled upon the 
throne. Northumberland, in the mean time, attempted to 
quit the kingdom : but was prevented by the band of pen- 
sioner guards, who detained him, in order to justify their 
own conduct in bearing arms against their sovereign. Thus 
baffled on all sides, he was sent to prison, tried, and shortly 
after suffered the punishment due to his ambition. Sentence 
at the same time was passed against Lady Jane Grey and 
her husband, but without any intention on the part of Mary 
of carrying it into execution. The Duke, when brought to 
the scaffold, professed himself a Roman Catholic, expressed 
his contrition for having sacrificed his religion and conscience 
to his ambition, and declared to the multitude present, that 
they never would enjoy peace and tranquillity till the) 7 ' had 
returned to the religion of their forefathers. 

The Queen's ministers soon saw the necessity of strength- 
ening their power for the re-establishment of the ancient 
religion, and for this purpose sought for a proper consort for 
their mistress. They at length fixed upon Philip of Spain, 
son to the celebrated Charles V., judging that a powerful 
alliance with the Catholic princes would put a stop to any 
effectual attempt in favour of the Reformation. The Reform- 
ers, on their side, were far from being idle. They formed 
secret cabals in different parts of the kingdom, and spread 
various alarms among the people to prepossess them against 
the match. They represented it as a deep design to bring 
the nation under the dominion of a foreign power ; and it 
was observed, that those who had been lately pardoned for 
abetting Lady Jane, were the most active in exciting the 
people. Their first plan was to await the moment of King 
Philip's landing for a signal of insurrection, but the violence 
of their zeal admitted of no delay. Sir Thomas Wyatt, and 
many of the Kentish gentlemen flew to arms ; and about 
the same time Sir Peter Carew appeared at the head of a 
party in Devonshire ; whilst Sir James Croft, a person of 
great influence in Wales, was dispatched to excite revolt in 
those parts. The Duke of Suffolk, father of Lady Jane, 
although he had lately been pardoned for his treasonable 
attempts to alter the succession, took the field with his two 
brothers and other persons of distinction. The rebels were, 

14 



158 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

however, with the exception of Sir Thomas Wyatt, dispersed 
in a few days, by the vigilance of the Lord Lieutenant. Sir 
Thomas marched to Rochester, where a body of men, com- 
manded by the Duke of Norfolk, were sent to attack him ; 
but a regiment going over to the rebels, the Duke retired 
towards London. The rebels immediately proceeded towards 
the capital, but were stopped at London Bridge. They 
remained two days at Southwark ; but when the Lieutenant 
of the Tower threatened to fire the Borough about their ears, 
they withdrew to Kingston, and thence, crossing the bridge 
which they had previously repaired, they advanced to 
Brentford ; but upon the publication of a general amnesty, 
most of the rebels, with the exception of Sir Thomas Wyatt 
and four or five of the other principals, returned to their 
homes. Sir Thomas, with the remainder, proceeded towards 
London, where he was met by some of the Queen's troops, 
and, after a slight skirmish, surrendered himself and was 
executed, having some time before his death implicated the 
Princess Elizabeth in the conspiracy. In this rebellion about 
a hundred lost their lives ; the rest were all pardoned. The 
persons most pitied were Lady Jane and her husband, who 
had been for some time under sentence of death. After 
this second attempt, it was thought necessary to cut off 
entirely the hopes of the reforming party, and they were 
accordingly beheaded, as were also the Duke of Suffolk and 
Lord Thomas Grey. 

As all was now quiet, Philip came over and was married 
to the Queen at Winchester, Bishop Gardiner performing 
the ceremony. In the marriage contract particular anxiety 
was shewn by her ministry to preserve entire the liberty, 
privileges, and customs of the nation. 

In the last year of the Queen's reign a war broke out 
between France and Spain, which involved England in the 
quarrel. As Philip was called to the scene of action, he 
prevailed upon Mary to permit some choice regiments of 
English to accompany him, who behaved with great bravery, 
and greatly contributed to the victory of St. Quintin's. 
Informed of an attempt to be made by the French to sur- 
prise Calais, Philip sent timely notice to the Queen and her 
ministry, offering at the same time to reinforce the garrison 
by a detachment of his own army. But as the measure was 
either refused or neglected, Calais, which had cost Edward 
III. eleven months to capture, was given up to the Duke of 
Guise, after six days' siege. Thus was Calais lost, after 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 159 

having been in the possession of the English nearly 300 
years. This loss, undoubtedly the effect of treachery, filled 
the whole nation with discontent, and the Queen with the 
deepest anguish. She was heard to say, that, when dead, 
the name of Calais would be found engraven on her heart. 
This complication of evils, a discontented people, an increas- 
ing heresy, a disdainful husband, and an unsuccessful war, 
made dreadful inroads on her constitution; she became 
consumptive, and as she was improperly treated by her phy- 
sicians, her disorder increased. She died of a slow fever, on 
the 17th of November 1558, in the 43d year of her age. 

Though the memory of Mary has been loaded with 
calumny and abuse by the ignorant or prejudiced, she has 
n#t wanted even Protestant writers to do justice to her cha- 
racter. C©llier says: " It may be affirmed, without contra- 
diction or panegyric, that the Queen's private life was all 
a!*ng strict and unblemished. Religion was uppermost with 
her, and she valued her conscience above her crown." That 
she was not of a vindictive, implacable spirit, may be infer- 
red from her pardoning most of the great men in Northum- 
berland's rebellion. "A princess never to be sufficiently 
commended of all men for her pious demeanour, and her 
commiseration towards the poor," says Camden. Echard 
says : " She was a woman of a strict and severe life, who 
allowed herself few of those diversions belonging to courts ; 
was constant at her devotions," &c. ; and Culler says, " she 
hated to equivocate in her own religion, and always was, 
what she was; without dissembling her judgment or prac- 
tice, for fear or flattery." In a word, all was done openly, 
and by the advice and direction of the legislative power, 
without any undue interference. She gave no ambiguous 
answers, when questioned about her religion before she 
ascended the throne ; never fomented nor encouraged rebel- 
lion*, did not amuse the neighbouring princes with sham 
treaties of marriage ; never assisted rebels abroad to rise 
against their lawful sovereigns ; entertained no favourites at 
court, to the prejudice of her reputation; did not keep the 
dignities of the church in her hands for her own conveni- 
ence, nor invade the revenues of its clergy, by diminishing 
their sees, or exchanging their manors for others of inferior 
value. That she possessed great fortitude is evident, from 
the many attempts that were made to shake her constancy 
in her faith, both in her father's life and that of her brother. 
To her father, as far as her conscience permitted, she was 



160 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

ever dutiful and respectful ; to "Edward she represented, that 
he had neither years, experience, nor as yet authority, to 
alter the religion of his ancestors. To the bishops and clergy, 
who were sent to her, she answered, that a year or two before 
they were of a different opinion as to religion, and she did 
not know what new lights they had received since, or by 
what authority they preached their innovations. In a word, 
with the exception of punishing some few on religious 
grounds, according to former statutes, who might have been 
convicted for conspiring against her crown, she was a prin- 
cess every way worthy of the eminent dignity to which, 
after many trials and hardships, Providence was pleased to 
raise her. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 



Urban VII 1590 

Gregory XIV 1590 

Innocent IX. . 1591 

Clement VIII 1592 



Paul IV 1555 

Pius IV 1559 

Pius V 1565 

Gregory XIII 1572 

Sixtus V 1585 

EMPEROIIS OF GERMANY. 

Ferdinand 1558|Rodolphus II 1576 

Maximilian II 1564 | 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Soliman II 1520 I Amurath III 1574 

Selimll 1566 I Mahomet III 1595 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Henry II 1547 I Henry III 1574 

Francis II 1559 j Henry IV 1589 

Charles IX 1560 I 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Philip II 1555 1 Philip III 1591 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

John 1521 1 Sebastian 1557 

KINGS OF DENMARK. 

Frederic II 1559 1 Christian IV 1568 

KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

Eric X 1556 1 Sigismund 1592 

John III 1569 1 

KING AND Q.UEEN OF SCOTLAND. 

Mary 1542 'James VI 1567 

(Scotland united to England.] 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 161 

Elizabeth, reigned 44 Years, 4 Months, 7 Days. 

1558. — Upon the death of Mary, Elizabeth, who was at 
Hatfield, hastened immediately to London, where she was 
received with great demonstrations of joy. Her first care 
was to assemble parliament, which shewed itself entirely 
devoted to her will, and unanimously sanctioned her title to 
the throne. But Elizabeth was not without her fears : and 
the first and principal person that excited them was Mary, 
Queen of Scots. At a very early age that princess, pos-. 
sessed of every accomplishment of person and mind, 
had been married to the Dauphin of France, who dying, 
left her a widow at the age of nineteen. Finding herself 
exposed to the persecution of the Queen-dowager, who then 
began to take the lead in France, she returned home to Scot- 
land, where she found the people strongly agitated by the 
fanatics of the reformed doctrine. To strengthen herself,, 
and secure the right of succession in her family, she mar- 
ried Lord Darnley, who after her was the next in succession. 
On the 19th of June 1566, she had a son, who was James 
VI. of Scotland, and subsequently succeeded to the English 
crown by the title of James I. He was baptized in the 
Catholic church, Charles of France and Philibert of Savoy 
being his godfathers, and Elizabeth his godmother. But the 
Scottish nobility, who encouraged the reformation, were in 
the mean time secretly contriving her ruin, assisted by the. 
machinations of the Earl of Murray. The first project was, 
to cause a misunderstanding between Mary and her husband, 
by insinuating that she was too familiar with David Rizzio, 
her secretary. Taking his opportunity, he proceeded with 
some of his party to the Queen's apartment, where Rizzio 
then was, and dragging him into the antichamber, they dis- 
patched him with fifty-six wounds, while the unhappy prin- 
cess continued her lamentations during the perpetration of 
their horrid crime. This was a prelude to the tragedy that 
followed. Her husband, Lord Darnley, was strangled in his 
bed, his body thrown out of the window, and the apartment 
set on fire. People were left to guess at the authors of this 
barbarous murder; those who were acquainted with the 
inclinations of the persons about the court, conceived it to 
be, as it really was, a contrivance of Murray, Morton, and 
their party, to bring the queen under suspicion, and get the 
voung king and the reins of government into their owa 

w 



162 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

hands. The queen, left alone among her enemies, was 
easily persuaded to marry some person who might assist her 
against their violence. She made choice of the Earl of 
Buchan, a nobleman in great favour with the nation for his 
prowess and valour, though in reality one of the murderers 
of Darnley. As reports to that effect were circulated, she 
insisted he should first clear himself from that imputation by 
a legal trial, and, moreover, be discharged from the obliga- 
tion of his former marriage. It was, therefore, contrived by 
his party, to call him to the bar; and as Morton was his 
advocate, and Lenox his accuser dared not appear, he was 
fully acquitted, and immediately married the queen : a cir- 
cumstance that served to increase the suspicion that she was 
privy to the murder of her former husband. The plan suc- 
ceeding according to their wishes, Murray withdrew to 
France, and the confederates took up arms, giving Bothwell 
secret notice to take care of himself, in order to prevent the 
discovery of the plot, if once he were taken ; and also to 
avail themselves of his flight, for the purpose of charging 
the queen with the murder of her husband. They immedi- 
ately seized the queen, and imprisoned her in Lochlevin 
Castle. From this confinement, however, she made her 
escape, and in a few days was joined by more than 6,000 
men. With these a battle was fought against the rebels, 
commanded by Murray, who had returned from Fiance, and 
been made regent. The victory declared for Murray, and 
the queen fled towards the coast, where she embarked, and 
landed at Workington, in Cumberland, hoping to obtain pro- 
tection from Elizabeth. In this she was unfortunately dis- 
appointed. She was ordered to Tutbury Castle, in Stafford- 
shire, and put under the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury. 
Soon after, the Duke of Norfolk, a nobleman distinguished 
for his generosity, affability, and beneficence, fell a sacrifice 
to the jealousy of Elizabeth, and the intrigues of the Earl 
of Leicester, his mortal enemy. That crafty courtier had 
instigated him to make an offer of his hand to the Queen of 
Scots, and promised at the same time to manage the affair 
with Elizabeth, a condition which Mary affixed to her consent. 
Instead of performing his promise, he took particular care to 
keep Elizabeth ignorant of the business, till being informed 
of it by other hands, she was so provoked at the duke's pro- 
ceedings, that he was sent to the Tower, and being again 
accused of renewing the treaty of marriage, and of other 
pretended misdemeanors, he was impeached and beheaded. 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 163 

Mary was now more strictly confined than ever. The 
tyrannical manner in which she was treated, inspired many 
with pity for her sufferings, and among others a Mr. Babing- 
ton, with about fourteen of his youthful companions, entered 
into a combination to deliver her. The attempt failed, and 
Babington and his associates were executed. At their trials 
it appeared, that although the Queen of Scots had held 
some correspondence with Babington, it was only relative to 
her escape from prison. Her enemies, however, did not fail 
to allege treasonable attempts against Elizabeth, and the 
desire of Mary to liberate herself from an unjust imprison- 
ment, was construed into an encouragement of traitors. 
After various preparatory contrivances, she was at length 
brought to trial. At first she protested against the compe- 
tency of her judges, but afterwards consented to a hearing 
of her cause. She demanded to be put in possession of such 
notes as she had taken preparative to her trial. Her demand 
was refused, as was also her request for a copy of her pro- 
test. Even her wish to have an advocate to plead her cause 
against so many learned lawyers who had undertaken to 
urge the accusations was rejected, and after an adjournment 
of some days, sentence of death was pronounced against 
her. No sooner was this result made public, than severe 
reflections were thrown out by the people against the con- 
duct of the commissioners, and the injustice of the sentence. 
Much art was, therefore, used by Elizabeth, to make it 
appear how reluctant she was to confirm the sentence : but 
the Commons, who were entirely under the control of her 
ministers, in their address insisted upon the execution of the 
sentence, as the only way to secure her crown and the cause 
of the reformation. 

The fatal time now drew near. Elizabeth gave orders in 
writing to her secretary, Davison, to expedite the mandate 
for the execution, and then after some days sent him an 
order to defer it ; but it was too late, it had already passed 
the great seal. By some, this conduct was attributed to 
remorse ; but Davison, in the apology he afterwards wrote, 
clearly proves that the queen willingly and without any 
reluctance gave the order, and at the same time jocosely 
bade him go and acquaint Walsingham, who lay sick, that she 
was afraid he would die of grief at the news. He, more- 
over, asserts that she knew full well that it was too late to 
stop the execution when she sent to him : that three days 
after she had given him the order, she expressly told him 



164 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

she had not altered her mind, but wished the thing had been 
done some other way, and that her chief concern seemed 
to be to save her honour. In fine, he declares that on the 
very day of the execution he spoke with the queen, who 
severely checked him because the thing was not done. No 
sooner was the sentence known abroad, than much interest 
was made to have it reversed. The king of France sent 
over an ambassador in behalf of Mary: but he was plainly 
told, there could be no security for Elizabeth while she 
lived. King James dispatched Sir Robert Melville to peti- 
tion for his mother's life : but even his request of a respite 
for eight days was denied, and Elizabeth replied, " not an 
hour." When the sentence was delivered to Mary, and she 
was told, that as long as she lived, the religion adopted in 
England could not be secure, she gave God thanks, and 
seemed exceedingly rejoiced. That this was really the 
cause of her death, she herself observed at the time of her 
execution. " They say," said she, V that I must die, because 
I have plotted against the Queen's life ; yet, the Earl of Kent 
tells me, there is no other cause of my death, but that they 
are afraid of their religion, because of me." 

The order for her execution being now made out, and 
delivered to the Earls of Shrewsbury, Derby, and Kent, they 
immediately repaired to Fotheringhay Castle, where Mary 
was confined, and ordered her to prepare for death the next 
morning. She received the news with a composed and 
undaunted demeanour, and desired that her confessor might 
be sent to her. This request was cruelly denied, and the 
Bishop and Dean of Peterborough were recommended to 
her. Upon her refusal to receive them, the Earl of Kent in 
a rage exclaimed, "your life will be the death of our reli- 
gion, and your death will be its life." The fatal moment 
arrived : she dressed herself in a rich habit of silk and vel- 
vet, the only one she had reseryed for this solemn occasion. 
At eight o'clock the sheriff entered her room, and informed 
her that all was ready. "I am so likewise," she replied, 
and immediately, with a composed and cheerful counte- 
nance, a veil over her head, her beads at her girdle, and a 
crucifix in her hand, she left her chamber, and proceeded to 
the hall, in which a scaffold was erected. The Dean of 
Peterborough then began an exhortation: but she begged 
him to forbear, as she was firmly resolved to die in the Holy 
Catholic Faith. The room was crowded with spectators, 
who all beheld her with pity and admiration, while her 






THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 165 

beauty, though dimmed by age and affliction, gleamed 
through her sufferings, and was still remarkable at this fatal 
moment. When she began to disrobe herself, the execu- 
tioners offered their help: but she put them back, saying 
she was not accustomed to be served by such grooms. While 
her women with melting eyes were performing that office, 
she affectionately kissed them, signing them with the cross, 
and with a pleasant countenance bade them forbear their 
womanish lamentations, for now she should rest from her 
sorrows. The two executioners then kneeling, asked her 
pardon ; she said she forgave them, and all the authors of her 
death, as freely as she hoped for forgiveness from God, and 
once more made a solemn protestation of her innocence. 
Her eyes were then covered, and she laid her head on the 
block without fear or trepidation, and recited the Psalm, "In 
thee, Lord, have I put my trust." Then stretching forth 
her body, she repeated several times, " In manus tuos, #<?.," 
and at two strokes her head was severed from her body. 

Elizabeth received the news of this disgraceful event 
with such an apparent mixture of sorrow and indignation, 
that her countenance changed, her speech faltered, and she 
appeared to abandon herself to grief and melancholy. She 
severely rebuked her council, imprisoned Davison, and wrote 
letters to the King of Scotland, protesting that the event had 
taken place without her intention or concurrence. 

Thus died Mary Queen of Scots, who, as Camden says, 
"was a lady fixed and constant in her religion, of singular 
piety towards God, of invincible magnanimity of mind, 
wisdom above her sex, and of admirable beauty." She 
suffered in the forty-sixth year of her age, and nineteenth of 
her imprisonment. 

To return to Elizabeth's transactions with foreign powers. 
Philip of Spain, who had long aimed at universal dominion, 
was filled with resentment against Elizabeth, for the encour- 
agement and assistance she had secretly afforded his rebel- 
lious subjects in the Netherlands. He now determined to 
put his projected invasion of England in execution. Every 
part of his vast empire resounded with the noise of arma- 
ments. The fleet consisted of 130 vessels, of a greater size 
than any hitherto seen in Europe. The Duke of Parma 
was to conduct the land forces, 20,000 of whom were on 
board the fleet, and 34,000 in the Netherlands, ready to 
embark. No doubt was entertained of their success, and it 
was ostentatiously called the Invincible Armada. Great was 



166 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

the consternation of all ranks of people in England on [U 
approach to their shores, and it served the ministry as a 
fresh pretext for the accusation against the Catholics. The 
penal statutes were strictly enforced ; and upwards of forty 
priests were put to death, although it was clearly proved 
that not an English Catholic was on board the fleet, nor in 
the arnry of Philip, and that every where throughout Eng- 
land, they were among the foremost to offer their services 
and lives in defence of their country. 

Meantime, the most vigorous preparations were made to 
repel the invaders, and an enthusiastic love of their country 
spread through all ranks. Lord Howard of Effingham was 
appointed to command the fleet; Drake, Hawkins, and For- 
bisher, the most consummate seamen in Europe, served 
under him, while a small squadron of English and Flemish 
vessels lay off Dunkirk, to intercept the Duke of Parma. 
The Spanish Armada now advanced towards Plymouth ; 
while Effingham, with the English fleet, stood out from port, 
eager to give them a warm reception. They began the 
attack at a distance, pouring in their broadsides with admi- 
rable dexterity. They did not attempt to engage them more 
closely, being greatly inferior to them in number of guns 
and weight of metal; nor could they board such lofty decks 
without great disadvantage. They, however, disabled and 
captured two Spanish galleons. As the Armada advanced 
up the Channel, the English still followed, infesting their 
rear; and their fleet continually increasing from different 
ports, they soon found themselves in a condition to attack 
the enemy more closely, and accordingly they fell upon 
them while they were taking shelter in the port of Calais. 
To increase their confusion, Lord Howard took eight of his 
small vessels, and filling them with combustibles, sent them 
as fire-ships into the midst of the enemy. The Spaniards, 
aware of the danger, took to flight in the greatest disorder; 
while the English, profiting by the panic, took and destroyed 
twelve of their ships. This was a fatal blow to Spain. As 
the remainder of their fleet had received great damage, they 
resolved to return to Spain, by sailing round the Orkneys. 
They accordingly proceeded northward, followed by the 
English fleet, as far as Flamborough Head, where they were 
overtaken by a storm, and terribly shattered ; seventeen of 
their ships, with 5,0i)0 men on board, were subsequently 
cast away on the coast of Ireland. Of the whole Armada, 
only fifty-three ships returned to Spain, in a miserable 



THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 167 

condition, serving, by their accounts, to intimidate their 
countrymen from ever attempting again so dangerous an 
expedition. 

From being invaded, the English, in their turn, attacked 
the Spaniards ; numerous expeditions were undertaken by 
private adventurers. Of those who figured most in these 
retaliations upon Spain, was the young Earl of Essex, a 
nobleman of great courage, eloquence, and address, but 
hasty and presumptuous. His influence over the Queen's 
affections promoted his power in the state, and he conducted 
all things according to his discretion. Intoxicated with the 
favour of his sovereign, he so far forgot himself, in a dispute 
with Burleigh, the prime minister, about the choice of a 
governor for Ireland, as to turn his back upon the Queen in 
a contemptuous manner; which so provoked Elizabeth, that 
she instantly gave him a box on the ear. Enraged at this 
treatment, he clapped his hand to his sword, and swore he 
would not bear such ungenerous usage even from her father, 
and then left the court. He was very soon, however, taken 
into favour again, and the death of his rival, Lord Burleigh, 
seemed to confirm his power more securely than ever. 

In Ireland, the oppression of the government, and the 
attempts to introduce the Reformation, had set the whole 
country in a ferment. To subdue the insurrection was an 
employ that Essex thought worthy of his ambition, and his 
enemies were not backward in promoting a scheme which 
would remove him from court, where he obstructed all their 
prospects of preferment; but it ended in his ruin. 

Instead of attacking the insurgents in their grand quarters 
in Ulster, he led his forces into the province of Munster, 
where he only exhausted his strength, and lost his opportu- 
nity against a people, who submitted at his approach, bu. 
took up arms again when he retired. This issue of an enter- 
prise, from which so much had been expected, did not fail 
to provoke the Queen ; but her resentment was still furthei 
increased, when she found, that without any permission 
asked or obtained, he had left his appointment and returned 
to England. He was ordered to continue a prisoner in his 
own house till the Queen's pleasure should be known ; and 
it is probable that his discretion for a few months would 
have reinstated him in all his former employments. But the 
impetuosity of his temper would not suffer him to await a 
6low redress of what he considered his wrongs, and relying 
on his popularity, he began to hope, from the assistance of 



-168 THE UNION OF THE TWO FAMILIES. 

the multitude, for that revenge upon his enemies, which he 
supposed was denied him from the throne. Among other 
criminal projects, it was resolved that Sir Christopher Blount, 
-one of his dependants, should, with a small detachment, 
possess himself of the palace gates ; that Sir John Davies 
should seize the hall, and Sir Charles Dacres the guard 
chamber, while Essex himself should rush from the Mews, 
with his partizans, into the Queen's presence, and entreat 
her to remove his and her enemies, to assemble a new Par- 
liament, and to correct the defects of the present adminis- 
tration. 

While Essex was deliberating on the manner in which 
he should proceed, he received a private note, by which he 
was warned to provide for his own safety; and a person, 
probably employed by his crafty enemies, came as a mes- 
senger from the citizens, with offers of assistance against all 
his adversaries. Essex gave immediately into the snare, 
and it was resolved to raise the citizens. For this purpose 
he issued out with about 200 followers, crying out as he 
passed through the streets, " For the Queen ! for the Queen! 
a plot is laid for my life !" But the citizens had received 
orders from the Lord Mayor to keep within their houses, so 
that he was not joined by a single person. Returning to 
Essex-House in despair, he began to make preparations for 
defending himself to the last extremity. But his case was 
too desperate for any remedy of valour ; and after in vain 
demanding hostages and conditions from his besiegers, who 
had now surrounded his house, he surrendered at discretion, 
demanding only civil treatment and a fair and impartial 
hearing. He was immediately conveyed to the Tower, with 
Lord Southampton, one of his accomplices, and being found 
guilty, was condemned to death. It is said he strongly 
entertained hopes of pardon, from the irresolution which the 
queen discovered before she signed the warrant for his exe- 
cution. She had formerly given him a ring, which she 
desired him to send her in any emergency. This ring, it is 
reported, was actually entrusted to the Countess of Notting- 
ham, to be delivered to Elizabeth; but the Countess, who 
was his concealed enemy, never presented it: while Eliza- 
beth, fired at his supposed obstinacy, reluctantly consented 
to his execution. The Queen had been visibly a prey to 
remorse since the execution of the unfortunate Mary ; the 
death of Essex completed her despair. The Countess of 
Nottingham had revealed, upon her death-bed, the secret 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, fcc. 169 

of the ring, which so astounded the Queen, that she burst 
into the most violent paroxysms of rage, refused all suste- 
nance, and for ten days and nights lay upon the carpet, a 
prey to the most sullen melancholy ; nor could her physi- 
cians prevail upon her to be put to bed, or make trial of any 
remedies. She soon after fell into a lethargic slumber, from 
which she never awoke. She expired in the seventieth 
year of her age. 



CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Jljfairs, fyc. 

During the reign of Henry VII. but few transactions are 
to be noted with regard to the ecclesiastical affairs of the 
realm. A constant correspondence was kept up with the 
see of Rome, and although controversies arose concerning 
the right of patronage, presentation to church dignities, 
exemption of the clergy from taxes, prosecutions in courts 
of civil judicature, the privileges of sanctuary, the power of 
excommunication, and other church censures in cases of a 
civil nature ; yet all these censures and controversies were 
ever carried on within the pale of the church ; there was no 
breach of communion, no new liturgies, no articles of reli- 
gion drawn up in opposition to the belief of the universal 
church. 

Such was the state of affairs when Henry VIII. came 
to the crown. He exceeded many of his predecessors in 
the respect paid to the holy see ; and even after he had 
assumed the title of head of the church, he was so scrupu- 
lous about the Pope's supremacy, that Cranmer was obliged, 
at his consecration, to take the oath of canonical obedience 
to the see of Rome. 

The Separation of the English Church from the See of Rome, 
commonly called the Reformation. 

Great changes, both in Church and State, have been 
effected without any fixed design in the beginning; but 
favoured only by incidental circumstances, and taken up by 
bold and enterprising men. This appears to have been the 
case with regard to what is called the Reformation in Eng- 
land. All that was done for it under Henry VIII. was rather 

15 



170 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 

for private ends, than for any real view to alteration : for 
while Henry was quarrelling with the see of Rome on the 
subject of his divorce from Catharine, those who were 
inclined to favour Lutheranism, and other opinions contrary 
to the doctrine of the universal church, took advantage of 
the confusion which prevailed in the nation, to seduce many 
to their tenets. Under these favourable circumstances, the 
Reformers exerted themselves to circulate satirical writings, 
and books of evil tendency, in order to create in the people 
a dislike to the practices of the Church, and a contempt of 
its ministers. The King, also, unable to obtain from the 
Pope a sentence of divorce, set aside the authority of the 
see of Rome, renounced the Pope's supremacy by a decree 
of Parliament, insinuated his intention of dissolving the 
monasteries, and attached himself to the Lutheran princes 
of Germany. 

These proceedings encouraged the partisans of the Refor- 
mation to carry on their designs in a bold and methodical 
manner. Cranmer and Cromwell, through whose hands all 
public matters passed, took care from time to time to publish 
such orders and injunctions as served their cause; one of which 
was, that all preachers should forbear mentioning the con- 
troversies of the times on both sides. This, they gave out, 
proceeded from a prudential motive to restrain intemperate 
and exasperated minds. They were, therefore, to be silent 
on the articles of purgatory, praying to saints, priests, mar- 
riages, faith, justification, miracles, &c. This was clearly to 
favour the Reformation, it not being usual to silence the pro- 
fessors of an established religion out of compliment to its 
aggressors. Cranmer, at the same time, craftily insinuated 
to the King, that several things were then practised not 
authorized by the Holy Scriptures, such as the vow of celi- 
bacy in the clergy. Both public and private motives 
induced Cranmer to make this a leading inquiry. He had 
himself taken a wife, contrary to the canons of the Church, 
and it cost him some pains to conceal his union. Again, 
some of the religious who had been expelled the monaste- 
ries, having an opportunity of conversing with those of the 
other sex, gave great scandal by the breach of their vows. 
However, when Gardiner and Tunstall found what was 
going on, they procured a bill to be brought into Parliament, 
which passed both houses, and it was declared capital to 
refuse to subscribe to them. The articles were, transub- 
stantiation, communion under one kind, celibacy of tho 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 171 

clergy, monastic vows, private masses, and auricular confes- 
sions. This act kept the reformers under some restraint, as 
to any direct attack against those doctrines of the church, 
though they did not cease to ridicule its practices by satires, 
and even public plays and farces. Cranmer, whose marriage 
was no longer a secret, was summoned, under this act, before 
the Privy Council ; but, producing a ring given him by the 
King, all proceedings against him were stopped. 

Thus did Henry, by his resentment against the see of 
Rome for thwarting his vicious inclinations, give encourage- 
ment to the reformers, though that he never could persuade 
himself to believe in their doctrine is plain, even from his 
Last will, which in substance runs thus: "We most humbly 
commit our soul to God, who, in the person of his Son, 
redeemed us with his most precious blood. We also instant- 
ly desire the prayers and intercession of the blessed Virgin 
and all the Saints. We ordain that there be a convenient 
altar at Windsor, for a daily mass, to be there perpetually 
said while the world shall endure." He moreover ordered 
a thousand marks to be distributed among the poor, to pray 
for the remission of his sins ; and established a perpetual 
fund for the support of thirteen poor knights of Windsor, 
under the obligation of praying for the repose of his soul. 

Next to the divorce, the King's extravagance was a pow- 
erful cause of the separation. Unable to replenish his ex- 
hausted coffers, he had cast an eye of cupidity upon the riches 
of the monasteries, and at length he resolved to begin the 
long-talked-of reformation of the religious. When first the 
measure was debated in council, a large majority were for 
reducing the number where neglect of discipline seemed to 
require such a regulation, but undistinguished seizure was 
exclaimed against as a sacrilegious and scandalous attempt. 
It was, however, at last decreed that the King, by virtue of 
his assumed supremacy, might act as he pleased. A visita- 
tion of all the monasteries was therefore appointed ; and many 
artifices were made use of to make it palatable to the nation. 
Lampoons, ridicule, charges of ignorance, sloth, avarice, 
.superstition, lasciviousness, and frauds, were the common 
table-talk. No room was allowed for remonstrance or 
defence : the power of the visitors was without appeal. 

When the visit was over, and particulars laid before the 
servile Parliament, it was decreed that all monasteries, the 
annual rents of which were under £-200, should no longer 
exist, while the commissioners themselves were authorized 



172 RELIGION, &c. 

to make the estimates. The larger, however, soon shared 
the same fate, notwithstanding the great encomiums bestow- 
ed upon them by the commissioners in their visitation. The 
refractory abbots were either tempted by the promise of large 
pensions, or threatened for their disobedience. Some were 
deprived ; and others, more complying, put in their places. 
In a word, by menaces or presents, by promises and persua- 
sions, and by every artifice which was likely to shake the 
constancy or prevail on the passions of men, the abbots were 
at last brought to surrender, so that in about two years were 
demolished those monuments of British power and Norman 
glory, which, during more than ],000 years, had attested the 
virtue and religion of our ancestors. 

Every station in life, every order of men, nobility and 
gentry, rich and poor, old and young, clergy and laity, felt 
the innumerable calamities that ensued. In the monasteries 
and abbeys were to be found the best instructors of youth ; 
each convent had one or more persons assigned for that pur- 
pose. To them we are indebted for most of our historians, 
and even the preservation of learning. Their superiors were 
the best of landlords ; the rents were low, the fines easy ; 
their hospitality knew no bounds ; and as to their charities, 
it will be sufficient to observe, that while the monasteries 
remained, there were no provisions of parliament for the 
relief of the poor, and no assessment on the parishes. If then 
we compare the annual income of the monastery lands, valued 
at nearly £140,000, with the poor rates now paid, regard 
being had to the different value of money, it w T ill appear what 
the nation lost by their dissolution. 

On the death of Henry, Cranmer and the other reformers 
took particular care to secure the young King to their party. 
They procured a commission, by which certain bishops and 
divines were empowered to draw up a new liturgy. This 
was so artfully worded as not to touch directly upon an)' 
doctrinal point, so that many of the clergy conformed to it, 
and were thus unthinkingly drawn into the snare. This 
liturgy was completed in 1548, but not enjoined till the year 
following, when several penalties were enacted against those 
who refused compliance. 

As death had prevented Henry's further sacrilegious rob- 
beries, the ministry were now determined to complete the 
work. They caused a decree to be passed, in virtue of which 
they seized upon the remaining pious foundations, together 
With chapels, chantries, guilds, shrines, images, plate, jewels, 



RELIGION, &c. 173 

and other costly ornaments. Part of the spoil found its way 
into the exchequer ; but a far greater share became the prey 
of private individuals. An order also came forth to burn and 
destroy all the public service books and missals : antiphoners, 
graduals, See. were all promiscuously committed to the flames. 
In the midst of all this, King Edward died ; and as the at- 
tempt of Northumberland to set lady Jane Grey on the throne 
miscarried, the Princess Mary ascended it amidst the accla- 
mations of the people. 

Immediately after her coronation, a Parliament was called, 
which proceeded to annul those acts that had passed in the 
late reign in favour of the reformation. Cardinal Pole was 
sent for, and soon arrived with full power from the Pope to 
effect a reconciliation. On the 20th November 1554, he 
appeared in parliament, and having delivered in his briefs, 
&c. relating to his commission, he began a moving discourse, 
in which he compared England to the prodigal child ; that 
having wasted its spiritual substance, it was now returning 
to the centre of unity, the see of Rome. He then pronounced 
the absolution : both houses of parliament answering Amen. 
On the following Sunday he gave a public benediction in St 
Paul's Cathedral, in presence of the Queen, King Philip, the 
Lord Mayor, and citizens. Bishop Gardiner, the Lord 
Chancellor, preached a sermon, in the course of which he 
affirmed, that King Henry, not long before he died, expressed 
a fervent wish to be reconciled to the Church of Rome: 
made some overtures to accomplish it ; but would have it 
effected without reflecting on his honour and dignity. This 
ceremony was followed by a jubilee, proclaimed over the 
whole church, so that nothing seemed wanting to complete 
the general joy of the nation. There were, however, many 
whose interest led them to maintain the principles of the 
reformation. The purchasers of the church and abbey lands 
feared they should soon be obliged to restore them ; and 
many clergymen who had married were of the number of 
the ill-disposed. Their disaffection at last broke out into 
various acts of rebellion : even the Queen's life was menaced. 
One Parson Rose inserted in the public prayers that "God 
would either turn the Queen's heart from idolatry, or shorten 
her days." A dog's head was shaved in contempt of the 
tonsure. A cat was hung up in Cheapside with a wafer in 
her paws, to ridicule the blessed sacrament ; and the Queen's 
preacher was shot at in the pulpit at St. Paul's Cross. To 
put a stop to proceedings, which not only menaced the Church, 



J74 RELIGION, &e. 

but also the overthrow of the government, a council was 
summoned. The Queen and Cardinal Pole were for lenient 
measures ; but the majority, with Gardiner and Bonner at 
their head, determined that the laws formerly made against 
rebels and obstinate heretics should be enforced. It is to be 
lamented, that Mary, in this instance, did not mingle pru- 
dence with her zeal, by punishing the guilty for their treasons, 
rather than their heresy, and thus prevent the charge of 
religious persecution, so justly merited by Henry, Edward, 
and Elizabeth. It is said, that upon this account, upwards 
of 30,000 left their native country; many were imprisoned, 
and about thirteen suffered death, being burnt alive. Among 
these, the most noted were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, and 
Hooker. Cranmer, in hopes of saving his life, made a full 
recantation of his errors ; but, when he found that his death 
was determined on, he again avowed his principles, and, 
with a firmness in death which he had not shown during his 
life, he courageously held the hand with which he had signed 
the recantation in the fire, till it was consumed to ashes. 

Mary dying after a reign of little more than five years, was 
succeeded by her sister Elizabeth, who abolished all the 
decrees made in favour of Catholics in the last reign, and in 
the end completely astablished the Reformation. She had r 
during Mary's reign, conformed entirely to the Church of 
Rome, and had so disguised her sentiments, as to make it 
appear that she acted sincerely. But upon her accession to 
the throne, many of those who were enemies to the old 
religion, and had concealed themselves under occasional 
conformity, seized the juncture to rouse her ambition, and 
augment her fears. They represented, that the act of illegit- 
imacy was still in force against her ; that her claims by 
Henry's will were precarious ; that there were other pretend- 
ers, whose claims were plausible, and who wanted not power 
to support them ; and that the see of Rome would certainly 
maintain its decree in favour of Catharine's marriage. For 
these, and many other reasons, they declared, that there was 
no other way left to secure her title than by firmly establish- 
ing the Reformation. 

Elizabeth did not, however, declare herself all at once; she 
artfully continued to balance the hopes of both parties, till 
she had secured to herself one sufficiently strong. She began 
by removing the leading Catholics from all places that would 
give them any influence at the elections ; and, as nearly one- 
feaJf of the episcopal sees were vacant, many voices were 



RELIGION, &.c. 175 

wanting to support the interest of the true religion. Reports 
were also industriously spread, that the Queen of Scots 
intended to disturb her majesty's title, and that the church 
lands were to be taken out of the hands of the laity, and 
restored to their rightful owners. When all was thus prepared, 
a parliament was called, in which, after acknowledging the 
Queen's title, they proceeded to restore the first-fruits to the 
crown, alleging in excuse the necessities of the government. 
The bill of supremacy was next introduced and passed, with 
this qualification, that Elizabeth should be styled governess 
instead of head of the church. 

In the mean time, Parker, Whitehead, and others, prepared 
a bill for revising and establishing the Common Prayer. 
"The most considerable alteration," says Echard, "was that 
the express declaration made against the corporal presence in 
the Eucharist, as set forth by Edward, was now omitted, that 
none might be drawn out of the church upon that account. 
The matter, therefore, was left undetermined, as a speculative 
point, in which the people were left at liberty." In this 
affair none of the bishops, deans, or heads of the universities, 
were consulted. It met with strong opposition, not only from 
the clergy, but from many temporal lords. Scot, bishop oi 
Chester, made a resolute speech, in which he challenged the 
world to produce an instance where the bishops were not 
consulted in an affair of this nature. Abbot Feckenham 
prroved, that "these reformers floated in their opinions, quit- 
ting their first plan, and refining upon themselves, yet always 
pretending to publish nothing but the unerring word of God." 
The convocation which was then sitting, not only dissented 
from the act concerning the Common Prayer, but signed a 
declaration and profession of the Catholic Faith, which is 
left to posterity as a standing proof that the Reformation was 
entirely the contrivance of the laity, and even of them many 
noblemen were totally averse from the change. The bishops, 
who had made a fruitless opposition, were now put to the 
test of the new oath of supremacy. It was refused by all 
except Kitchin of Llandaff, who is called by Camden " the 
calamity of his see." Upon their refusal, they were deprived 
of their dioceses, and thus made obnoxious to the penalty of 
the law, which condemned them, on the first refusal, to 
deprivation, — on the second, to forfeiture of goods and chat- 
tels, and imprisonment during the pleasure of the sovereign, — 
and on the third, to the punishment of high treason. This 
sufficiently incapacitated the friends of the old religion ; but 



J76 CONSTITUTION, LAWS, &c. 

still a remedy was wanting to unite the reformers among 
themselves. For this purpose a convocation met in January 
1563, in which were proposed and passed the famous thirty- 
nine articles. These were followed by penal and sanguinary 
laws, making it death to be ordained, or to be any ways instru- 
mental in reconciling any one to the religion of their fore- 
fathers. All their attempts, however, at uniformity, were 
fruitless. They broke out into parties, and, by degrees, into 
separate congregations, which have continued to the present 
day : so difficult an undertaking is it to unite them that are 
separated from the centre of unity. 



CHAPTER III. 

Constitution, Laws, Sfc. 

A general peace was re-established after the accession 
of Henry VII., and the prospect of happier days seemed to 
open to the nation. Quite wearied with the wars of the two 
houses, the people longed for repose, and therefore felt no 
inclination to resist the tyranny of his son and successor, 
Henry VIII., but basely permitted all those barriers which 
had been raised by their ancestors for the defence of their 
liberty, to give way to the encroachments of arbitrary power. 
The revenues of the crown at this time were very great. 
The treasures found in the coffers of Henry VII. were equal 
to £8,000,000 of our present money. All this wealth, 
together with the tenths and first-fruits, which had formed the 
revenues of the religious houses, came into the possession 
of Henry VIII. But a curse, it seems, was entailed upon 
riches so unlawfully acquired. Henry soon dissipated the 
whole ; died poor, and, fortunately for the liberties of Eng- 
land, left his crown as dependant on the people for supplies 
in parliament as any of his predecessors. 

With regard to the courts at Westminster, during this 
monarch's reign, the laws were shamefully perverted, and 
the most shocking acts of oppression were committed. Many 
noble persons were found guilty of high treason by acts of 
attainder, without any trial. Many were burnt, or other- 
wise put to death, upon account of religion ; and a still 
greater number were punished with fines and imprisonment. 
After this, no one can hesitate to pronounce Henry VIII. a 



LITERATURE AND ARTS. 177 

tyrant, and his parliament the servile executioners of his 
impious and cruel mandates. 

Not less arbitrary was Elizabeth ; witness the inquisitorial 
tribunal of the High Commission, and the continuance of 
the Star Chamber. No fewer, according to Dr. Milner, than 
two bundled and four Catholics sufFered death in her reign, 
not including many who died in prison. Fifteen of these, 
were condemned for denying the Queen's supremacy ; one 
hundred and twenty-six for exercising the priestly office ; 
and the remainder for aiding and assisting priests, or becom- 
ing reconciled to the Catholic faith. Among these victims 
no priest was put to death for any plot, real or imaginary 
except eleven, who suffered for the pretended conspiracy of 
Rheims ; a plot which, as the above reverend author justly 
remarks, was so notorious a falsehood, that Camden himself, 
the admiring biographer of Elizabeth, acknowledges the 
sufferers to have been political victims. 

In a word, so many terrors hung over the people, that no 
jury durst acquit any one whom the court was resolved 
to condemn ; while the practice of not confronting the 
witnesses with the accused, gave the crown lawyers all 
imaginable advantages over them. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Literature and Arts. 

During this period, philology, or the accurate knowledge 
of languages, particularly of the Latin and Greek classics, 
was cultivated with much care and success. To speak and 
write pure classical Latin was considered as a valuable and 
polite accomplishment, to which persons of high rank, and 
of both sexes, aspired. In order to assist youth in the acqui- 
sition of this accomplishment, the greatest scholars of the 
age, Erasmus, Linacre, and others, did not disdain to spend 
their time in writing rudiments, grammars, vocabularies, col- 
loquies, &c. Henry VIII. wrote an introduction to gram- 
mar ; and Cardinal Wolsey composed a system of instruction 
for the school which he founded at Ipswich, his native town. 
He had himself been a schoolmaster, and was well qualified 
for giving these instructions. The celebrated Erasmus, of 
Rotterdam, that most zealous and successful restorer of 



178 LITERATURE AND ARTS. 

learning, came into England in 1497, and went to Oxford, 
with a design to teach the Greek language, but met with 
little encouragement. Patronized, however, by some few 
learned men, he continued to teach for a considerable time, 
and made several proficients in that language, who after- 
wards communicated their knowledge to others. 

Erasmus bestows high encomiums on Cardinal Wolsey, a3 
a patron of letters and learned men. He procured the most 
able professors by generous appointments; and in furnishing 
libraries, he contended with Ptolemy himself. When he 
visited Oxford, in 1518, he founded seven lectures, and 
expressed his intention of doing much greater things for the 
University, which he in part executed, but was prevented 
by his fall from completing. 

From the accession of the Tudors, and after the extinc- 
tion of those factions which distracted England, a period of 
comparative tranquillity commenced. The country, in con- 
sequence, continued in a state of progressive improvement. 
Agriculture, and gardening in particular, were prosecuted 
with such success, that to this age is ascribed the introduc- 
tion of various fruits and vegetables into England. Apri- 
cots, melons, and currants, were brought, for the first time, 
from Zante ; and, in the beginning of the reign of Henry 
VIII., carrots, turnips, and other edible roots were imported 
from Holland and Flanders. To the passion of the age, and 
the predilection of the monarch, may be attributed the 
attention bestowed on a breed of horses., of sufficient strength 
to support the weight of the complicated panoply with which 
the knight and his courser were invested. Statutes of a sin- 
gular nature were enacted, allotting for deer parks a certain 
proportion of breeding mares, and enjoining the prelates and 
nobles, as well as those persons whose "wives wore velvet 
bonnets," to have horses of a certain size for their saddle. 

The rude simplicity of the Saxon architecture now gave 
way to the magnificence of the ornamental Gothic. The 
superb chapel of Henry VII., erected in Westminster, 
exhausted every ornament that taste could dictate or piety 
accumulate, and exhibits a splendid specimen of Gothic 
architecture in its latest period. Grecian architecture was 
then introduced: but its orders, till a purer taste prevailed, 
being intermixed with the Gothic, produced a discordant and 
barbarous assemblage. 

After the invention of cannon, the utility of castles 
ceased ; the King and nobility combined better accommoda- 



COMMERCE, &c. 179 

fions with superior elegance. Hampton Court is a standing 
monument of Wolsey's taste. The mansions of gentlemen, 
however, were still mean, and the huts of the peasantry 
poor and wretched. The former were generally thatched 
buildings, composed of timber; or, where wood was scarce, 
of large posts inserted in the earth, filled up in the intervals 
with rubbish, plastered within, and covered on the outside 
with clay. The latter were slight frames, prepared in the 
forests at a small expense, and, when erected, covered with 
mud. 

Painting met with considerable encouragement under 
Mary, and was enlivened by the presence of Antonio Mora, 
a native of Utrecht, who was sent over to London to paint 
the portrait of the intended bride of Philip. For this work 
he had £100, a gold chain, knighthood, and a pension of 
£100 per quarter as painter to their majesties. Elizabeth 
encouraged painting, because she was never tired of seeing 
portraits of herself. A pale Roman nose, a head of hair 
loaded with about a bushel of pearls, and decked with dia- 
monds, a large ruff, a still larger farthingale, are the features 
by which we recognise Elizabeth. 

Poetry burst forth at this period with considerable splen- 
dour; and Spencer, Jonson, and Shakspeare, particularly the 
latter, have been justly celebrated in every succeeding age. 

During the latter part of this period, a knowledge of music 
appears to have been an indispensable accomplishment in 
domestic life. "Being at a banquet," says Morley, "after 
supper w T as ended, and music books produced, the mistress 
of the house, according to custom, presented me with a part, 
earnestly entreating me to sing. After many excuses, I 
protested I could not: when everyone began to wonder, 
and some whispered to others, enquiring how I had been 
brought up." 



CHAPTER V. 

Commerce, 8fc 

The accession of Henry VII. was an event favourable to 
commerce, as it put an end to a long and ruinous civil war. 
Henry's policy, as well as his love of money, led him to 
encourage commerce, which increased his customs. But if 



180 COMMERCE, &c. 

we may judge by most of the laws enacted during his reign, 
trade and industry were rather injured than promoted. 
Severe laws were made against taking interest for money, 
which was called usury. Even the profits of exchange 
were prohibited, as favouring usury. To the praise of this 
king it must, however, be mentioned that, in order to pro- 
mote commerce, he lent money himself to merchants with- 
out interest, when he knew that their means were not 
sufficient for the enterprises they had in view. 

It was prohibited to export horses, as if exportation did not 
encourage the breed, and make them more plentiful. In 
order to promote archery, no bows were to be sold at a higher 
price than 6s. 4d. of our present money. Prices were also 
fixed to woolen cloth, and the wages of labourers were 
regulated by law. These matters, it is evident, should be 
left free, as in the common course of mercantile transactions 
interference has ever proved hurtful. 

In 1492, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, set out from 
Spain on his memorable voyage for the discovery of the 
western world ; and a few years after, Gama, a Portuguese, 
passed the Cape of Goop Hope, and opened a new passage 
to the East-Indies. These great events were attended with 
important consequences to all the nations of Europe, even 
to those not immediately concerned in naval enterprises. 
By the enlargement of commerce and navigation, industry 
and the arts every where increased. It was by accident 
only that Henry VII. had not a principal share in those great 
naval discoveries. Columbus, after meeting with many 
repulses from the courts of Portugal and Spain, sent his 
brother to London, in order to crave the protection of Henry 
for the execution of his designs. The King invited him over 
to England; but his brother being taken by pirates, was 
detained in his voyage, and Columbus meanwhile having 
obtained the countenance of Isabella of Spain, was supplied 
with a small fleet, and, happily, accomplished his object. 
Henry, not discouraged by this disappointment, fitted out 
Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, then settled at Bristol, and sent 
him westward in search of new countries. Cabot, after dis- 
covering the continent of America, returned to England 
without making any conquest or settlement. 

During the reign of Henry VIII. the foreign commerce 
of England was chiefly confined to the Netherlands. The 
inhabitants of the Low Countries bought the English com- 
modities, and distributed them into the other ports of Europe. 



COMMERCE, &c. 181 

Foreign artificers in general much surpassed the English, 
at this period, in dexterity, industry, and frugality : hence 
the violent animosity which the latter expressed against the 
former, who were settled in England. So great was the 
number of foreign artificers in the city, that 15,000 Flemings 
were obliged to leave it by an order of council, when Henry 
VIII. became jealous of their dispositions towards Queen 
Catharine. The King, in an edict of the Star Chamber, 
declared that the foreigners starved the natives, and obliged 
them, from idleness, to have recourse to theft, murder, and 
other enormities, which, in this reign, had increased to an 
alarming degree. No fewer than 2,000 persons were annually 
executed for these crimes. The true cause of these disor- 
ders was, however, to be found in the dissolution of the 
monasteries and abbeys, w T here so great a number of the 
poor were supported, and encouraged to work on their lands. 
These, when thus suddenly let loose, without any provision 
for their employ or support, became the pest of society, and 
the disgrace of their country. 

The silver coins of Henry VII. were shillings, or festoons, 
groats, pennies, and farthings. The gold coins were sover- 
eigns, reals, nobles, all of standard purity. Henry VIII., 
after squandering his father's treasures, and those of the 
church and monasteries, issued coins which had only four 
ounces of silver, and, in consequence, eight ounces of alloy, 
to the pound. This shameful debasement of the current 
coin was one of the pernicious, dishonourable, and impru- 
dent measures of his infamous reign, producing innumerable 
inconveniences in business, and making it a work of great 
difficulty to restore it to its standard purity. 

In the reign of Edward VI. crown and half-crown pieces 
were for the first time coined, as also the sixpenny piece. 
During the two first years of Elizabeth, she coined so much 
money that she found herself able to reduce the base coin to 
its real value. This was thought of such consequence, that 
her Parliament congratulated her upon it, and the event 
makes a part of the inscription on her tomb at Westminster. 
Her private interest, however, and the rewards she conferred 
on her favourites, berimed her into the measure of granting 
monopolies, and of creating exclusive companies, which 
were fatal to the interests of trade in general. 

After the death of John Basildes, czar of Muscovy, his 
son Theodore revoked the patent which the English enjoyed 
for a monopoly of the Russian trade. When the Queen 

16 



182 MANNERS, &c. 

remonstrated against this innovation, he told her ministers 
that trade, which by the law of nations ought to be in com- 
mon, should not be converted into a monopoly for the gain 
of a few. Theodore, however, continued some privileges to 
the English, on the score of their having discovered the com- 
munication between Europe and his country. In 1600, the 
English East-India Company received its first formation; 
that trade being till then in the hands of the Portuguese, in 
consequence of their having first discovered the Cape, of 
Good Hope. 

For several years after the commencement of this period, 
the state of the English manufactories was low, as foreign 
wares of all kinds had the preference ; but the persecutions 
in France and the Netherlands having driven a great num- 
ber of foreigners into England, commerce and manufactures 
were much improved. It was then that Sir Thomas Gre- 
sham built, at his own charge, the magnificent fabric of the 
Exchange, which the Queen visited, and called the Royal 
Exchange. The navy at the decease of the Queen con- 
sisted of forty-two vessels : a very contemptible force, if 
compared with what it has now attained to. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Manners, Sfc. 

At this period, but few of the comforts and conveniences 
of modern life were known. Queen Margaret, on her mar- 
riage with James IV. of Scotland, made her public entry 
into Edinburgh, riding on a pillion behind the King. The 
halls and chambers of the wealthy were surrounded with 
hangings of arras, and furnished with a cupboard, long tables, 
forms, a chair, and a few joint stools. Their beds were 
apparently comfortable, and often elegant; but people of 
inferior condition slept on a mat, or a straw pallet, under a 
rug, with a log of wood for a pillow. The large and fantas- 
tical head-dresses of the ladies of the former age, were now 
superseded by coifs and velvet bonnets. Among gentle- 
men, long hair was fashionable throughout Europe, till the 
Emperor Charles devoted his locks for his health ; and in 
England, Henry, a tyrant even in taste, gave efficacy to the 
fashion by a peremptory order for his attendants and cour- 



MANNERS, &c. 183 

tiers to poll their heads. The same spirit induced him by- 
sumptuary laws to regulate the extravagant dress of his sub- 
jects : cloth of gold or tissue was reserved for dukes and 
marquesses, and that of a purple colour for the royal family; 
silks and velvets were restricted to commoners of wealth 
and distinction, and embroidery was forbidden to all beneath 
the degree of earl. Cuffs for the sleeves, and ruffs for the 
neck, were the invention of this period. Pockets, a conve- 
nience to which the ancients had not attained, are, perhaps, 
among the latest real improvements of dress. Instead of 
pockets, a loose pouch seems to have been suspended from 
the girdle. Their cookery was distinguished by the profu- 
sion of hot spices with which every dish was seasoned. At 
entertainments, the rank of the guest was discriminated by 
their situation above or below the salt-cellar, which was 
placed invariably in the middle of the table. The chief 
servants always attended above the salt-cellar, beneath which 
the table was crowded with poor dependants, whom the 
guests despised, and the servants neglected. 

In the time of Queen Elizabeth, costly apparel had sa 
much increased, that she thought proper to restrain it by 
proclamation, though her example was very little conforma- 
ble to her edicts. Although she was by no means beautiful, 
no woman appears to have been more vain of her person, 
nor ever went to greater extravagance in apparel. She 
appeared almost every day in a different habit, and tried all 
the several modes she thought would suit her figure. She 
was also so fond of her clothes, that she never would part 
with any of them ; and at her death she had in her ward- 
robe all the different habits she had ever worn, to the num- 
ber of 3,000. Silk stockings were introduced at this time. 
Mrs. Montague, her silk woman, having presented her with 
a pair of black tilk stockings, she never afterwards wore 
cloth hose. Ruffs made of lawn or cambric, and stiffened 
with yellow starch, were worn by both ladies and gentle- 
men. The beard now throve abundantly. The portraits of 
this period have them of a most uncommon size. Among 
the customs of this age was that of smoking tobacco. This 
herb reached England in 1586, imported by the remains of 
Sir Walter Raleigh's unfortunate settlers from Virginia ; the 
knight himself was one of its first admirers, but for some 
time kept his attachment to it a secret, till the foible was. 
discovered by a laughable incident. He was enjoying his 
pipe in solitude, forgetful that he had ordered his servant to* 



184 MANNERS, &c. 

attend him with a jug of ale. The faithful domestic sud- 
denly entering the study, and finding, as he thought, his 
master's brains on fire, and evaporating in smoke and flames 
through his nostrils, did his utmost to extinguish the confla- 
gration by emptying the goblet on his master's head, and 
then rushing out of the room, alarmed the family with an 
account of the frightful scene he had witnessed. Sir Walter 
then made no secret of taking tobacco ; and, some years 
after, smoked two pipes publicly on the scaffold. 

In the course of this age theatrical representations fur- 
Dished amusement to all ranks. The earliest patent for acting 
them is dated 1574 ; but in the beginning of the next cen- 
tury, fifteen licensed theatres were open to the inhabitants 
of London. The price of admittance to the best places was, 
even as late as 1614, only one shilling, and at the inferior 
theatres one penny or two-pence would gain admittance. 
The plays generally began about one in the afternoon, and 
lasted about two hours. 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 185 



BOOK VIII. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Clement VIII 1592 [Gregory XV. 1621 

Leo IX 1605 1 Urban VIII. 1623 

Paul V 16051 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

Rodulphus II 1576 1 Ferdinand II 1619< 

Matthias 16121 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Mahomet III. 1595|Osman 1618 

Achmet 1603 I Mustapha restored 1622 

Mustapha 1617 I Amurath IV 1623 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Henry IV. 1589 1 Louis XIII 16ia 

KINGS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

Philip III 1591 1 Philip IV 1621 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Christian IV 1568 

KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

Sigismund 1592 iGustavus II. 1611 

Charles IX 16061 



THE UNION OF THE TWO KINGDOMS, IN THE HOUSE OF 
STUART. 



CHAPTER I. 

MILITARY HISTORY, &C 

1603. — James I., reigned 22 Years, 3 Days, 

In the person of James was united every claim, either of 
descent, bequest, or parliamentary sanction : he therefore 
ascended the throne with the universal approbation of all 
ranks of the people. In the very beginning of his reign, 
however, a conspiracy, real or pretended, was discovered, 
which appears, according to the indictment, to have had for 

16* H*»* 



JQ6 MILITARY HISTORY, ate-. 

its object the murder of the King, and the subversion of the 
reformed religion. Our historians give but a very imperfect 
account of the affair, the whole appearing full of inconsist- 
encies, and only a trick to terrify the party that seemed 
jealous of the Scottish interest, and to bring an odium upon 
the Catholics. This plot is said to have been commenced by 
Lord Cobham, Lord Grey, and Sir Walter Raleigh. Cobham 
and Grey were pardoned when they had their heads upon 
the block. Raleigh was reprieved, but remained in confine- 
ment ; and at last suffered for this offence, which was never 
proved. 

No sooner had the alarm of the nation subsided, than a 
plot still more atrocious was, by the activity or invention of 
the government, brought to light: it is called the " Gunpow- 
der Plot." It appears to have had its origin in the disap- 
pointed hopes of some fanatical wretches, and the diabolical 
policy of Cecil, who secretly urged them on, in order to cast 
a fresh odium upon the whole body of the Catholics, and 
prevent the King from manifesting the favourable disposi- 
tions he evidently at that time entertained for them. The 
history of this horrid affair is as follows. One Catesby hav- 
ing conceived the detestable design of blowing up the K&ig 
and members of Parliament when assembled together, com- 
municated his project to Percy, a relative of the Duke of 
Northumberland, to Guy Fawkes, and a few others. For 
this purpose they hired a house about two months before the 
meeting of Parliament, adjoining that in which the members 
assembled. They afterwards took a cellar, directly under 
the Parliament-house, which Percy gave out was for the 
winter's fuel. Into this were introduced about forty barrel ; 
of gunpowder; and the whole being covered with coals, the 
doors were thrown open as if it contained nothing danger- 
ous. Thus far the contrivance had been kept secret among 
the persons concerned ; but, about ten days before the Par- 
liament was to meet, a letter from an unknown hand was 
delivered to Lord Monteagle, admonishing him to be absent 
from Parliament on the day of their first meeting, for that 
" a sudden judgment would fall upon the nation, by an 
invisible hand." The ambiguity of the expression surprised 
and puzzled that nobleman': he therefore immediately dis- 
closed the whole to Cecil. This open proceeding of Lord 
Monteagle seems to have disconcerted Cecil's plan of send- 
ing notices to the other Catholic Peers who sat in Parliament. 
The design of sending these letters appears to have been, to 



MILITARY HIS l'OR V, fcc. 187 

deter those noblemen from appearing in Parliament on that 
clay, and thus afFord plausible grounds for charging them 
with a knowledge of the plot. To strengthen this conjec- 
ture, two Catholic peers, Stourton and Mordaunt, were 
actually fined, the former in £4,000, and the latter in 
£10,000, because their absence caused a suspicion of their 
being privy to the conspiracy. The letter was laid before 
the King in council, who, by the artful guidance of Cecil, 
conjectured, after some consideration, that the suddenness 
of the plot was to be effected with gunpowder, and by the 
nation was to be understood the Parliament-house : it was, 
therefore, determined to search all the vaults below the 
house of Parliament. Notwithstanding this, Cecil allowed 
three days to elapse before the search was made, or even 
gave any orders concerning it. When the place was inspected, 
the whole contrivance was discovered. A man was seized, 
who proved to be Guy Fawkes : he had just disposed every 
part of the train for its taking effect the next morning, and 
the matches and other combustible matters were found in his 
pocket. When taken before the Council, he displayed great 
intrepidity, mixed with disdain and scorn, refusing to discover 
his associates, and shewing no concern but for the failure of 
his enterprise : but confinement for two or three days in the 
Tower, and the sight of the rack, overcame his obstinacy, 
and he made a full disclosure of the plot. 

Catesby, Percy, and the rest of the conspirators who were 
in London, hearing that Fawkes was arrested, fled to War- 
wickshire ; the remainder of the party were already up in arms. 
The whole amount, however, of the rebels, only consisting" 
of about eighty, were totally unable to oppose the force sent 
against them ; and. after a desperate resistance, in which 
Catesby, Percy, and two others lost their lives, the remainder 
were taken, tried, and condemned. Several of them suffered 
death, while others experienced the King's mercy. Two 
missionaries, Father Garnet and Father Oldcorn, both Jesuits, 
were executed upon this occasion, the former for not reveal- 
ing what he knew in confession concerning the plot, though 
he had done every thing to dissuade them from it ; the latter 
for concealing his friend Garnet. Thus ended this myste- 
rious and diabolical attempt, in which it is hard to determine 
how far the politicians of the court were engaged. This 
much, at least, may be said, that they obtained their ends 
against the Catholics, who upon this account w T ere violently 



188 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

persecuted, and have been in a body charged with the fact, 
although the King himself in Parliament, and in the procla- 
mation issued for apprehending the traitors, declares it " only 
a contrivance of eight or nine desperadoes. Neither does 
his Majesty charge the plot upon the whole body of the 
English Papists." 

The penetration of the King, in the discovery of this con- 
spiracy, raised his popularity very considerably; but his 
attachment to favourites soon changed the sentiments of the 
nation in his regard. The first of these favourites was Robert 
Carr, whose natural accomplishments consisted only in a 
pleasing countenance, and his abilities in a graceful demea- 
nour. He was knighted, created Viscount Rochester, honoured 
with the order of the Garter, made a privy councillor, and 
finally created Earl of Somerset. Some time after, however, 
being convicted of poisoning Sir Thomas Overbury, in the 
Tower, he was' disgraced, and spent the remainder of his 
life in contempt, under the upbraidings of a guilty con- 
science. His successor in the royal favour was George Vil- 
liars; he soon attained the highest honours in the King's 
power to bestow, being made successively Viscount, Earl, 
Marquis, and Duke of Buckingham, Knight of the Garter, 
Master of the Horse, Chief Justice in Eyre, Warden of the 
Cinque Ports, Master of the King's-Bench office, Steward 
of Westminister, Constable of Windsor, and Lord High 
Admiral of England. 

The discontents which these prodigal favours excited were 
not a little heightened by one of those acts of severity 
which casts a stain upon this King's reign. Sir Walter- 
Raleigh had been confined in the Tower from the beginning 
of James's accession, and, during his imprisonment, had 
written several valuable performances. His long sufferings 
and his learning had now excited the sympathy of the peo- 
ple ; it was, probably, to procure his freedom, that he spread 
a report of his having discovered gold mines in Guiana, 
which would afford immense treasures to the nation. The 
King, either believing his project, or wishing to increase still 
further his disgrace, granted him a commission to try his 
fortune in quest of this golden scheme, but still reserved his 
former sentence as a check upon his future conduct. Raleigh 
had soon completed his preparations, and arriving off the 
river Oroonoka, he sent a part of his fleet, under the com- 
mand of his son up the stream : but, instead of a country 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 189 

abounding with gold, they found the Spaniards had been 
informed of their coming, and were prepared to repel them. 
Young Raleigh, to encourage his men, pointing to the town, 
cried out, " that was the true mine ;" but, in the act of 
speaking, he received a shot and instantly fell. The English 
carried the town, but to their disappointment found nothing 
in it of any value. 

All the hopes of Raleigh now vanished, and the reproaches 
of his companions augmented his deplorable situation. On 
his return he was delivered up to the King, and strictly 
examined in council. The Spanish ambassador made bitter 
complaints against the expedition ; and the King declaring 
he had express orders not to molest the Spaniards, signed 
the warrant for his execution, not for the present offence, 
but for his former conspiracy. At his death, he shewed 
the same fortitude that he had testified throughout his life, 
and observed, as he felt the edge of the axe, that it was a 
sharp but sure remedy for all evils. But the reason of James's 
subserviency to the demands of the court of Spain soon 
appeared : Gondemar, the Spanish ambassador, had made an 
offer of the second daughter .of Spain to Prince Charles, 
with hopes of an immense fortune. This was an affair, 
however, not likely to be soon negotiated ; and when five 
years had elapsed without any conclusion, the Duke of 
Buckingham, in the true spirit of romance, proposed to the 
prince to travel in disguise to Spain, and visit the princess 
in person. Nothing could better please the young prince; 
having obtained the King's consent, they set out, Charles as 
knight errant, and Villiars as his esquire. Passing through 
Paris, Charles became enamoured of Henrietta, daughter of 
Henry IV. He, however, proceeded to Spain, where every 
respect and attention was paid to him : but Buckingham, by 
his insolent conduct, having disgusted the whole nation, 
determined to break off the match, which he found no diffi- 
culty in accomplishing, and shortly after Charles was married 
to the princess of France. These proceedings, however, 
did not, as may easily be imagined, please the people. The 
House of Commons was become quite unmanageable, and 
the prodigality of James to his favourites had so increased 
his wants, that he was contented to sell his prerogatives one 
after another to procure supplies. In proportion as they 
perceived his necessities, they found new grievances, and 
every grant of money was sure to be joined to a petition of 
redress. 



190 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

These troubles at home were attended by still greater in 
Germany. The King's eldest daughter had been married to 
the Elector Palatine, and this prince revolting against the 
Emperor Frederic, was defeated, and obliged to flee into 
Holland. His affinity to the English crown, and particularly 
his religion, he being a Protestant, were strong motives with 
the ministry for supporting his cause, and frequent addresses 
were sent from the Commons to that effect. But James, 
whose pacific temper was averse from war, attempted to 
ward off the misfortune of his son-in-law by negotiation. 
Finding, however, the whole nation roused, he was obliged 
to recur to force of arms. War was, thereupon, declared 
against Spain and the Emperor, and 6,000 men were sent 
over to assist Prince Maurice. This army was followed by 
another of 12,000, and France promised its assistance. But 
upon sailing to Calais, they were refused admittance, and 
obliged to make towards Zealand, where, as.no proper mea- 
sures had been concerted for their disembarkation, a pesti- 
lential distemper broke out among troops so long pent up in 
narrow vessels: half the army died on board, and the 
remainder, being too small a body to proceed, returned 
home, and thus ended in disappointment this ill-concerted 
and fruitless expedition. 

James was soon after seized with a tertian ague, which 
brought him to his grave in the 59th year of his age. 







Cotemporary Sovereigns. 










POPKS. 






tFrban VIII . . 




1623 1 Innocent X. . . 




. 1644 






EMPERORS OF GEMAST. 

1619 | Ferdinand III. . 




. 1637 


Amurath IV. . . 
Ibrahim .... 




EXPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

16231 Mahomet IV. . 

1629 1 


. 1640 


Louis XIII. . . 




KINGS OF FRANCE 

16201 Louis XIV . . . 




1643 


Philip 


TV. 


KING OF SPAIN AND PORTCGAL. 


. 1621 




John IV. 


KING OF PORTUGAL, ALONE. 


. 1640 





MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 191 



1625. — Charles L, reigned 23 Years, 10 Months. 

Charles, on his accession to the throne, found himself 
involved in a war with Spain, with an impoverished trea- 
sury, and a Commons determined to resist his high notions 
of prerogative, and very reluctant in granting him supplies. 
In this emergency, Charles had recourse to that kind of tax 
called a benevolence, which, although a very oppressive 
measure, had many precedents ; and with this, the people, 
though very reluctantly, were for this time obliged to com- 
ply. But the greatest stretch of his power was in the 
levying of ship-money. The pretence for this tax was to 
equip a fleet, and each of the marine towns was required, 
with the aid of the adjacent counties, to arm as many ves- 
sels as were ordered : the city of London was rated at twenty 
ships. This was the commencement of that tax, which 
afterwards involved the whole nation in a flame. 

At this critical conjuncture, Charles was impolitic enough 
to listen to the advice of his favourite Buckingham, who had 
conceived a private pique against the Cardinal Richelieu, 
minister of France, and declare war against that kingdom. 
A fleet, under the command of the Duke, was sent to the 
relief of Rochelle, a city which had embraced the reformed 
religion, and was then besieged by the King of France. This 
expedition was as unsuccessful as that sent against Spain : 
the Duke's measures were so ill-concerted, that the citizens 
shut their gates against him. Instead of attacking the isle 
of Oleron, which was fertile and defenceless, he attempted 
the isle of Rhe, which was well fortified, and was in conse- 
quence obliged to retreat with such precipitation, that half 
his army was cut in pieces before he could re-embark, 
though he was the last man that quitted the shore. 

The dissension now between the King and Commons 
increased every day. The officers of the Customs were 
cited before the House, to shew by what authority they 
seized the goods of those who refused to pay the duty of 
tonnage and poundage, which they declared was illegally 
levied. From this they proceeded to the examination of 
religious grievances, in which they manifested the spirit of 
intolerance which actuated them. Charles, therefore, find- 
ing them entirely unmanageable, determined to dismiss 
them. Sir John Finch, the Speaker, rose up just as the 
question of tonnage was about to be put, and informed the 



192 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

House that the King had adjourned it. Upon this the whole 
assembly was in confusion ; the Speaker was pushed back 
into his chair, and forcibly held there till a short remon- 
strance was passed, rather by acclamation than by vote. In 
this violent production, Catholics and Armenians were 
declared capital enemies of the state ; tonnage and poundage 
was pronounced illegal, and those who paid it, as well as 
those who raised the duty, were considered as guilty of 
capital crimes. 

While the King was thus experiencing the animosity of 
the Commons, a severe blow was given him in the death of 
his favourite Buckingham, who fell by the desperate hand 
of one Felton, a gloomy enthusiast, as he was giving orders 
for the embarkation of some troops at Portsmouth. 

The King, now left without a prime minister, prudently 
resolved to make peace with the powers against which he 
had carried on war, and bend all his endeavours to regulate 
the internal policy of his kingdom. For this purpose he 
chose Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards Earl of Strafford, 
a man of the most eminent abilities and unshaken loyalty ; 
and Laud, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Tonnage and poundage were, however, still levied by the 
King's sole authority, and compositions made with the Catho- 
lics, which gave great offence to the Puritans. The high 
commission court of Star Chamber exercised its authority, 
independently of any law, upon several of these violent inno- 
vators, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed 
to render the Government odious and contemptible. But 
the levying of ship-money, as it was a burthen felt by all, 
gave universal dissatisfaction. One Hampden, of whom 
Clarendon says that " he had a heart to conceive, a head to 
contrive, and a hand to execute any villany," refused to 
comply with the tax. The case was argued twelve days 
before all the Judges of England, while the nation looked 
with the utmost anxiety to the result of a trial that was to 
limit the power of the King. All the Judges but four gave 
sentence in favour of the crown, though the King lost more 
than he gained, by the spirit of opposition it engendered in 
the people, who hailed Hampden as the supporter of their 
liberties. 

Whilst the discontents of the nation were thus ready to 
break out into open rebellion, Charles imprudently attempted 
to set up episcopacy in Scotland. This produced an univer- 
sal opposition, and the Scots flew to arms with the greatest 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 193 

animosity. Charles now found himself once more obliged 
to call a Parliament, to procure supplies ; but all he obtained 
from it were murmurings and complaints. Finding no hopes 
of compliance, he dissolved it, and had recourse to other 
measures. His wants still increasing, he again summoned a 
Parliament, which did not cease sitting till it had overturned 
the constitution. Instead of granting the subsidies demanded, 
they struck a decisive blow, by impeaching the Earl of 
Strafford of high treason. After a long and eloquent speech, 
delivered without premeditation, in which he fully confuted 
all the accusations of his enemies, he was adjudged guilty, 
and nothing remained but for the King to consent to the bill 
of attainder. Charles, who tenderly loved the Earl of Straf- 
ford, hesitated, and tried every expedient to put off the 
signing of the warrant for his execution. While he was in 
this agitation, he received a letter from that unfortunate 
nobleman, which marks the heroic, though misjudged brave- 
ry with which he was animated. He desired that the King 
would not hesitate in making a sacrifice, which would lead 
to the mutual reconciliation between him and his people ; 
adding, he was prepared to die, and that, to a willing mind, 
there could be no injury. At last, after a most violent strug- 
gle with his conscience, Charles had the weakness to grant 
a commission to four noblemen, in his name, to give the 
royal assent to the bill, flattering himself, perhaps, that as 
neither his will consented to the deed, nor his hand imme- 
diately engaged in it, he was the more free from the guilt 
that attended it. At the same time he empowered them to 
give his assent to a bill which proved equally fatal to him- 
self, viz. that the present Parliament should not be pro- 
rogued or adjourned without their own consent ; thus ren- 
dering that power perpetual which had already proved so 
uncontrollable. 

In the midst of these troubles, the Irish, goaded by the 
persecutions of the Puritans, who were headed by the Lords 
Chief Justices Parsons and Borlase, and exasperated by the 
execution of martial law, broke out into open insurrection, 
and retaliated upon their oppressors the cruelties which them- 
selves had so dreadfully experienced. Charles, unable of 
himself to put a stop to these disasters, once more applied to 
the Commons : who, instead of affording assistance, insinu- 
ated, that he had himself promoted the rebellion ; and they 
now made that spirit of republicanism appear which finally 
destroyed the monarchy. 

17 



» 



194 MILITARY HISTORY, &C. 

They began their operations by an attack on episcopacy, 
which they knew to be one of the strongest bulwarks of the 
regal power. They accused thirteen Bishops of high treason, 
and endeavoured to prevail upon the Peers to exclude all the 
prelates from their house. The Bishops, who saw the storm 
gathering, and who were no ways ambitious of the title of 
martyrs, instead of supporting their King and the Constitution, 
pusillanimously shrunk from their duty, and resolved to attend 
the House of Lords no longer* 

This was a fatal blow to the Royal cause, and Charles's 
imprudence served to augment it. Finding that all his com- 
pliance had but increased their demands, he could no longer 
suppress his indignation, and gave orders to the Attorney- 
general to enter an accusation of high treason against Lord 
Kimbolton, Sir Arthur Hasling, Hollis, Hampden, Pym, and 
Strode. Scarcely had the people time to wonder at the im- 
prudence of this measure, when they were astonished at one 
still more rash and unsupported. The King himself went 
to the House of Commons, and took possession of the Speak- 
er's chair, telling them he was come to seize the members 
accused of high treason. Finding, however, that they had 
withdrawn before his arrival, he proceeded, amidst the clam- 
ours of the people, who cried out, "privilege, privilege," to 
the Common Council of the city, who answered his com- 
plaints with a contemptuous silence. Returning to Windsor, 
he began to reflect, when too late, on the rashness of his 
proceedings. He wrote, therefore, to the Parliament, to 
assure them, that he desisted from the proceedings against 
the accused members, and would, in future, be as careful of 
their privileges as of his life or crown. His former precipita- 
tion had rendered him obnoxious to the Commons, his present 
submission made him contemptible. 

The Commons, in order to get the army into their own 
hands, under a pretence of a dread of the Papists, petitioned 
to have the Tower delivered to them ; and that Hull, Ports- 
mouth, and the fleet should be entrusted to persons of their 
choice. With this the King was obliged to comply. Each 
compliance, however, only begot a fresh demand. They 
now pretended a great dread of the Irish Catholics, and 
requested to have a militia raised, and governed by officers 
of their own nomination. Charles here determined no 
longer to comply, and peremptorily refused the demand. His 
refusal broke off all further treaty, and now both sides deter- 
mined to have recourse to war. 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 195 

As the King's forces were m a very low condition, he 
withdrew to Derby, and thence to Shrewsbury, in order to 
countenance the levies his friends were making in those 
quarters. The Parliament, on their side, were not remiss. 
They had already enlisted forces, on pretence for the service 
of Ireland, and the command was given to Essex, a man of 
considerable experience. They moreover held the public 
purse, while the King could only be supplied by his loyal 
subjects, chiefly Catholics, who, notwithstanding all the penal 
laws against them, and the persecutions they met with, con- 
tinued eminently loyal and attached to their prince, from the 
first conflict at Edgehill till the Restoration of Charles II. 
Their numbers in the royal cause were so conspicuous, that 
notice is taken of it in several declarations, and from them 
the whole royal army received the denomination of "the 
Popish army;" whilst, on the other hand, not one Catholic 
officer appeared in the army of the Parliament. 

At Edgehill the first blood was spilt in the royal cause. 
The battle was obstinately contested; and, after a loss of 
5,000 men, both parties separated without any advantage on 
either side. 

Upon the whole, this first campaigne was favourable to 
Charles. The Parliamentarians were defeated at Stratton 
Hill, in Devonshire ; again at Roundaway Down, near 
Devizes ; and a third time at Chalgrove Fields. The battle 
of Newbury was also favourable ; several cities were taken, 
and great expectations were formed of the Marquis of New- 
castle, who was raising an army in the north. 

The next campaigne, however, -proved disastrous to the 
King. The battle of Marston-moor was fought the beginning 
of July. Victory was, for a long time, doubtful. Prince 
Rupert, the King's nephew, who commanded the right wing 
of the royal army, having pursued too far, was attacked in 
flank by Cromwell, totally routed, and all his artillery taken. 
The battle of Naseby, which followed, decided the fate of 
Charles, and put the Parliamentarians in possession of almost 
all the strong cities of the kingdom. Unsuccessful at all 
points, Charles retreated to Oxford, which, in all conditions 
of his fortune, had remained faithful to him. Fairfax, how- 
ever, the Parliamentarian general, was soon before that city 
with a victorious army, and prepared to besiege it. In this 
desperate situation of his affairs, Charles embraced a measure 
which proved his ruin. He resolved to seek refuge among 
the Scots, who had not shown such violent animosity against 



196 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

him ; but no sooner was he in their power, than they entered 
into a treaty with the English Parliament, and, upon pay- 
ment of £400,000, delivered him to his implacable foes. 

Finding himself now without the least hope, he deter- 
mined, if possible, to spare any further efFusion of blood, and 
therefore absolved his followers from their oath of allegiance. 

The King now in their power, and having no enemy to 
fear, the rebels began to quarrel among themselves. The 
Parliament, wishing to get rid of the army, proposed to dis- 
band a part, and send the remainder over to Ireland. This 
was by no means relished by the soldiers; and Cromwell, 
who now began to have great influence over them, took 
care to augment their disaffection. In oppositon to the Par- 
liament, they set up a military one, composed of the officers, 
who represented the Peers, and of two deputies from each 
company of the soldiers, as a Houjse of Commons. Crom- 
well, who secretly influenced all these measures, resolved, 
in order to give some colour of authority to their proceedings, 
to get the King into his custody ; and accordingly, dispatch- 
ing a party of horse to Holmsby Castle, where the King was 
confined, he was seized and conducted to the army. 

The minority of the Commons, who were for the army, 
secretly withdrew from the house, and were received by the 
soldiers with shouts and acclamations, as true patriots, while 
the whole army, to the amount of 20,000, prepared to rein- 
state them in their former seats. The part that remained 
behind, resolving to act with vigour, gave orders to enlist 
troops ; but at the approach of Cromwell, all their resolution 
forsook them, and the gates were opened to the general, with 
every mark of respect and submission. 

Perceiving their error when too late, the Parliament 
attempted to open a negotiation with the King; but the 
army, sensible of its power, sent an officer to secure the 
King's person, and surrounding the Parliament House, seized 
forty-one members of the Presbyterian party, and expelled 
160 more, allowing none to remain behind but the most 
furious Independents, who afterwards received the name of 
" the Rump Parliament." 

A committee was now appointed to proceed against the 
King, whom they were determined to sacrifice. He was 
conducted to London, and immediately brought before the 
High Court to take his trial. The court consisted of 133 
persons, named by the Commons, chiefly officers of mean 
birth ; the remainder were a few members of the lower house, 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 197 

and sortie citizens of London. The King began his defence 
with denying the authority of the Court. He insisted that 
being himself the head and source of the law, he could not 
be tried by laws to which he had not consented ; that, more- 
over, there was no appearance of an upper house, to consti- 
tute a just tribunal ; that having been entrusted with the 
liberties of his people, he would not betray them, by acknow- 
ledging power founded on usurpation. Three times was the 
King brought before the tribunal, and as often protested against 
its authority. On the fourth, as he was taken thither, the 
soldiers and mob insulted him, crying out " Justice ! Execu- 
tion !" The Judges, having proceeded in the formality of 
examining witnesses, at length passed sentence upon him, 
for having levied arms against the parliament. On being 
conducted out of court, the guards were again urged to insult 
him, and one of the rabble presumed to spit in his face, on 
which he only meekly observed, " My Saviour suffered much 
more for me." One of the soldiers, moved with compassion, 
could not help saying "God bless you:" upon which an 
officer struck the poor fellow to the ground, and the King 
could not refrain from saying that li the punishment exceed- 
ed the offence. " 

This unheard-of trial, which struck all with amazement, 
was no sooner ended than the King employed his whole 
thoughts in preparing for death. He requested permission 
to see his children, which was granted, and also three days 
to prepare himself for execution. All that remained of his 
family in England were the Princess Elizabeth, about twelve.' 
years old, and the Duke of Gloucester, about eight. After 
many exhortations to his daughter, he took his son in his arms, 
and tenderly embracing him, said: "My child, they wilt 
cut off thy father's head, and make thee king : but mark 
what I say, thou must not be a king as long as thy brothers 
live. They will cut off their heads when they can catch 
them, and thy head too will they cut off at last ; therefore 
I charge thee do not be made a king by them."' The child 
bursting into tears, replied : " I will be torn in pieces first." 

The fatal morning being arrived, he rose early from a 
sound sleep, and after dressing himself with more than ordi- 
nary care, as for some joyful solemnity, he was led through 
the banqueting-house to the scaffold, attended by Bishop. 
Juxon. The people in great crowds stood at a distance. The 
King surveyed with a calm and serene countenance all these 
preparations for death ; and finding he could not be heard; 

IT* 



198 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

by the people at so great a distance, he addressed himself to 
the few persons around him: he there justified himself for 
taking arms, acknowledging, that although he was innocent 
towards his people, he was justly punished by his Maker for 
having consented to the unjust sentence of the Earl of 
Strafford. He forgave all his enemies ; and after exhorting 
the people to return to their obedience to his son, he took off 
his cloak, and pronouncing the word " remember" to Bishop 
Juxon, he laid his head on the block, and on stretching his 
hand as a signal, his head was severed from his body at one 
blow, and the executioner holding it up, exclaimed, "This 
is the head of a traitor." Charles was executed in the 49th 
year of his age, 1649. 

It is impossible to describe the grief, consternation, aston- 
ishment, and remorse which took place, not only among the 
spectators, but through a great part of the nation, as soon as 
the report of this fatal catastrophe was conveyed to them. 
Each blamed himself, either for active disloyalty to the 
King or passive compliance with his destroyers ; and even 
the pulpits, which some time before resounded with inso- 
lence and sedition, were now bedewed with tears of real 
repentance. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Innocent X 16441 Alexander VII 1655 

EMPERORS OP GERMANY. 

Ferdinand III 1637 1 Leopold 1658 

EMPEROR OF THE TURKS, 

Mahomet IV 1649 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Louis XIV 1469 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Philip IV 1621 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

John IV 1640|Alphonso VI. .... . . 1656 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Frederic III 1648 

KING AND Q.UEEN OF SWEDEN. 

Christiana 1633 J Charles X 1665 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 199 

4 

The Commonwealth. 

1653. — Oliver Cromwell, Protector, 

4 Years, 9 Months. 

The dissolution of the monarchy followed the death of the 
King. On the 6th of February, the Commons voted " that 
the House of Lords was useless and dangerous, and the 
kingly office unnecessary and troublesome." They also 
voted it high treason to acknowledge Charles Stuart, son of 
the late King, as successor to the throne. They next pro- 
ceeded to punish those who had been remarkable for their 
fidelity to their late sovereign, and the Duke of Hamilton, 
Lord Capel, and the Earl of Holland were executed. These 
proceedings irritated the Scots, and the insolence of the 
Independents inflamed their indignation still more. They 
now resolved to call over Prince Charles, who had for some 
time resided at Paris : he accepted their offer, but soon found 
himself no better than a prisoner in their hands. 

In the meantime, Cromwell, who had been appointed to 
the command of the army in Ireland, prosecuted the war in, 
that unfortunate kingdom with his usual success and fero- 
city : he had to encounter the Royalists, under the Duke of 
Ormond, and the native Irish, under O'Neil. These troops 
he quickly overcame ; and most of the towns, intimidated 
by his successes, opened their gates at his approach. But in 
his conquest he shewed a savage cruelty that would have 
tarnished the most heroic courage, putting every garrison to 
the sword that offered the least resistance. He was upon the 
point of reducing the whole kingdom, when he was obliged 
to return to oppose the Scots, who had levied a considerable 
army. He immediately marched against them with 16,000 
men, and although the Scots were double the number of the 
English, they were soon put to flight with great slaughter, 
while Cromwell did not lose more than forty men. 

After this defeat, Prince Charles put himself at the head 
of the remains of their army, which he reinforced by the 
Royalists, chiefly Catholics, who had been excluded by the 
Scotch covenanters. To strengthen still further the royal 
party, he was proclaimed and crowned at Scone, on the first 
of January, 1651. Cromwell pursued the King's forces, 
and bv cutting off all supplies, rendered it impossible for 



•>()0 THE COMMONWEALTH. 

Charles to maintain his army : but observing that his way 
was open to England, he immediately directed his march 
thither, hoping to be joined by the Royalists. In this, how- 
ever, he was disappointed ; terrified at the approach of 
Cromwell, they dreaded to shew themselves. Scarcely was 
the news arrived of Cromwell's march than he was himself 
with his army before Worcester, then occupied by the King's 
troops. He immediately fell upon the city on all sides : the 
whole army of the Scots were either killed or taken pri- 
soners ; and the King himself, after giving many proofs of 
valour, was obliged to seek his safety in flight. 

Charles now entered upon a scene of the most romantic 
adventures. Attended by a few friends, among whom was 
Colonel GifFord, a Catholic gentleman, well acquainted both 
with the roads and Catholic families, and favoured by the 
darkness of the night, he arrived at White Ladies the next 
morning. Here, cutting off his hair, colouring his face with 
walnut leaves, and dressed like a peasant, he committed 
himself to the fidelity of the Pendrels, three Catholics, poor 
men, and brothers, who with their family and other Catho- 
lics, to the amount of fifty-two, were greatly instrumental in 
concealing him and favouring his escape, notwithstanding 
the danger they incurred and the price set upon his head. 
After various attempts, and almost miraculous escapes from 
his pursuers, and having passed a whole day in an oak-tree, 
whence he saw the soldiers in pursuit of him, he reached 
Shoreham in Sussex, embarked, and arrived in safety in 
Normandy. Cromwell, in the mean time, returned in tri- 
umph, and his first care was to punish the Scots, who had, 
as he said, "withstood the work of the Gospel." An act 
was made for abolishing royalty in that kingdom, and annex- 
ing it to the commonwealth as a conquered countiy. 

In this manner the English Parliament, by the exertions 
of Cromwell, spread their undisputed authority over the 
whole British empire. Ireland was totally subdued by Ire- 
ton and Ludlow. The settlements in America were obliged 
to submit ; and Jersey, Guernsey, Scilly, and Man, were 
easily brought under subjection. And thus, under a Parlia- 
ment of sixty or seventy obscure persons, mankind beheld a 
great empire governed with vigour and success. 

The Parliament next resolved to chastise the Dutch, who 
had indeed given but slight cause of complaint. Their chief 
dependence lay in the active valour of their admiral, Blake, 
•who* although he had not embarked in the naval command 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 201 

till late in life, surpassed all that had gone before him. Many- 
dreadful engagements ensued between him and Van Tromp, 
the greatest admiral the Dutch ever possessed. These actions 
were far from decisive : but the Dutch, finding themselves 
crippled, their fisheries suspended, and their trade ruined, 
sued for peace ; to which, however, the Parliament gave 
but an unfavourable ear, rightly judging that while the force 
of the nation was exerted at sea it would diminish the power 
of Cromwell by land, which now was become very formida- 
ble to them. 

This aspiring man soon perceived their designs ; but, 
secure in the attachment of the army, he resolved to seize 
the sovereign power. For this purpose, he persuaded the 
officers to petition for payment of arrears and redress of 
grievances. The House was highly exasperated, and pre- 
pared an act, ordaining that all persons who presented such 
petitions in future should be deemed guilty of high treason* 
To this the army remonstrated ; the Parliament replied, and 
the breach grew wider every moment. This Cromwell 
had foreseen. Upon being informed how matters were pro- 
ceeding, he rose up in a seeming fury, crying out, that he 
was compelled to do a thing that made his hair stand on end. 
Hastening to the house with 300 soldiers, he entered, and 
stamping his foot, in an instant the chamber was filled with 
armed men. Then addressing himself to the members : 
"For shame," said he; "get you gone, give place to 
honester men. You are no longer a Parliament. I tell you, 
you are no longer a Parliament. The Lord has done with 
you." On Sir Harry Vane's exclaiming against this con- 
duct, "Sir Hany," cried Cromwell with a loud voice, "0 
Sir Harry Vane, the Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane !" 
Then taking one by the cloak, " Thou art an adulterer ;" to 
another, " Thou art a drunkard ;" to another, " Thou art a 
glutton." " You," continued he, " have forced me to this. 
1 have besought the Lord night and day, that he would slay 
me, rather than put me upon this work." Then pointing to 
the mace, he cried, " Take away that bauble." After 
which, turning out all the members, he ordered the doors to 
be locked, and putting the key in his pocket, returned to 
Whitehall." 

The persons he chose for the next Parliament were the 
very lowest, and the most ignorant and fanatic of the rabble, 
well assured that such characters could not hold the reins of 
government. Their very names, borrowed from Scripture, 



202 THE COMMONWEALTH. 

served to shew the excess of their folly. One of them 
called himself " Praise-God Barebones;" and from this ludi- 
crous circumstance, their odd assembly was named "Bare- 
bones' Parliament." 

At last they themselves appeared sensible of the ridicule 
thrown out against them. Some of them, by agreement 
with Cromwell, meeting earlier than the rest, declared that 
this Parliament had sat long enough, and accordingly resigned 
the power into his hands. Some of the members, however, 
proving refractory, Cromwell sent Colonel White to clear 
the house. They had placed one Mayer in the chair, who 
being asked by the colonel what they did there, was 
answered by Mayer very gravely, that they were seeking 
the Lord! "Then you must go elsewhere," cried White, 
"for to my certain knowledge the Lord has not been here 
these many years." 

This shadow of a Parliament being now dissolved, the 
officers chose Cromwell Protector of the Commonwealth, 
and his power was proclaimed in all parts of the kingdom ; 
and, without the name of King, he governed as absolutely 
as the most despotic prince in Europe. As he was feared 
at home, so he made himself respected abroad. The Dutch 
were humbled, after repeated defeats, and obliged to pay 
deference to the British flag. They were compelled to 
abandon Charles, to pay .£85,000 as an indemnification, and 
restore to the English East-India Company a part of those 
dominions of which they had been dispossessed in a former 
reign. The ministry of France paid the utmost deference 
to the Protector; and the Spaniards w^ere no less assiduous 
to gain his friendship, though they did not prove equally 
successful. Cromwell, who understood little of foreign poli- 
tics, regarded Spain with an eye of jealousy, and therefore 
lent the French court a body of 6,000 men, to attack the 
Spanish dominions in the Netherlands. By their assistance 
the French gained a signal victory ; and, as a reward for the 
service, Dunkirk, which had just surrendered, was put into 
Cromwell's hands. But it was at sea the Spaniards were 
the most effectually humbled. Blake, whose fame had 
spread through Europe, became a dreadful scourge to the 
Spaniards. He sailed into the Mediterranean, whither no 
'English fleet since the Crusades had attempted to advance, 
and there conquered all that opposed him. He then ben*: 
his course to Africa, and compelled the Dey of Algiers to 
make peace, and restrain his piratical subjects from commit- 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 203 

ting any further depredations on the English flag. He next 
went to Tunis, and made the same demand : but the Dey 
desired him to look at his two castles, and then do his utmost. 
Blake immediately forced his way into the harbour, burnt 
all the shipping, and sailed out triumphantly towards Cadiz, 
where he took two galleons, valued at nearly 2,000,000 
pieces of eight. At the Canaries he burned a Spanish fleet 
of sixteen ships, and returning to England, died within sight 
of his native shore. 

But with all this tide of success, and all this despotic 
power, the situation of the usurper was truly miserable. He 
had rendered himself at last hateful to every party, and only 
owed his safety to their mutual distrust of each other. To 
increase his wretchedness, his own family detested his usur- 
pation ; his favourite daughter, on her death-bed, upbraided 
him with his hypocrisy and crimes. Conspiracies were 
formed against him ; and, to add to his calamities, a pam- 
phlet, entitled " Killing no Murder," was published : the 
most eloquent and masterly of any that came forth. " Shall 
we," says this popular declaimer, " who would not suffer the 
lion to invade us, tamely stand to be devoured by the wolf?" 
It is said, that after Cromwell had read this treatise, he was 
never seen to laugh, and was haunted with perpetual fears 
of assassination. He wore armour under his clothes, was 
attended by a numerous guard, and never slept above three 
nights together in the same chamber. At last a tertian ague 
put an end to a life of anxiety and horror, after an usurpa- 
tion of nine years, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 

He was succeeded in his office of Protector by his son 
Richard, who immediately assembled a parliament : but the 
officers surrounding his house, forced him to dissolve it. 
Soon after he signed his abdication, and lived in tranquillity 
upon his private fortune. His younger brother Henry, who 
had the command in Ireland, where he governed with great 
lenity, and had acquired considerable popularity, followed 
his example, and resigned without an effort. 

The officers, now left to themselves, restored the Rump 
Parliament ; but again dissolved it, and elected a committee 
of twenty-three persons, seven of whom were officers, and 
thus established a military government. 

During these transactions, General Monk was in Scotland, 
with a body of 8,000 veteran troops. He had secretly cor- 
responded with Charles, and finding himself eagerly looked 
up to by all parties, he immediately published a protest 



204 TnE COMMONWEALTH. 

against the measures of the military government, and put 
his army in motion. He proceeded with the utmost caution, 
covering his intentions with the greatest secrecy and reserve. 
Even his brother, who came to him with a message from the 
King, was refused an audience upon the subject, because he 
had told his errand to Mr. Price, the general's own chaplain, 
and a man of known honour and probity. At last he reached 
St. Alban's, and sending a message to the Rump Parliament, 
who had ventured to resume their seats, desired them to 
remove their forces to country quarters. Some of the regi- 
ments willingly obeyed, and such as did not Monk turned 
out by force, after which he took up his quarters at West- 
minster. The House voted him thanks for his services, 
when he desired them to call a free parliament. The 
expelled members were now restored ; and, having a major- 
ity over the Rump faction, they repealed all the orders by 
which they had been expelled. They then dissolved them- 
selves, and gave orders for the immediate assembling of a 
new parliament. 

At length the long-expected time for the sitting of a free 
parliament arrived ; but although the affections of all were 
evidently turned towards Charles, such were their fears, and 
so much danger had attended a freedom of speech, that 
no one, for some time, durst mention the King's name. At 
length Monk gave directions to the President of the Council 
to inform them, that one Sir John Granville, a servant to the 
King, had been sent over- by his Majesty, and was at the 
door with a letter to the Commons. This message was re- 
ceived with transports of joy ; Granville was called in, the 
letter read, and the King's propositions were immediately 
accepted. He offered a general amnesty, without any ex- 
ceptions but what should be made by Parliament ; promised 
liberty of conscience in matters of religion ; engaged to leave 
to Parliament the claims of contested titles, and to confirm 
all these concessions by act of Parliament. 

In consequence of this agreement between the King and 
Parliament, Montague, the English admiral, waited on King 
Charles to inform him that the fleet expected his orders at 
Scheveling. The Duke of York immediately went on board, 
and took the command as Lord High Admiral. The King 
embarked, and landing at Dover, was received by General 
Monk, whom he tenderly embraced. He entered London 
on the 29th May 1(560, which was his birth-day, attended 
by an innumerable multitude of people, who, long rent by 



THE RESTORATION. 205 

factions, and oppressed by a succession of tyrants, could not 
restrain their emotions of delight at beholding once more their 
constitution, with all its train of security, freedom, and peace, 
restored to them. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Alexander VII 1655 I Clement X 1669 

Clement IX 1667 | Innocent XI 1676 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Leopold 1658 

EMPEROR OP RUSSIA. 

Peter the Great 1682 

EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. 

Mahomet IV. 1649 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Louis XIV 1643 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Philip IV 1621 1 Charles II 1665 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

AlphonsoVI 1656 1 Pedro II 1683 

KINGS OF DENMARK. 

Frederic III 1648 J Christian VI 1678 

KING OF SWEDEN. 

Charles XI 1660 



The Restoration. 

1660. — Charles II. , reigned %A Years, 9 Months. 

The first measures of Charles gave universal satisfaction. 
Without regarding former distinctions, he admitted into his 
councils the most eminent men of the nation. As the Par- 
liament had been summoned without the King's consent, it 
received at first only the title of V Convention," and it was 
not till after an act passed for that purpose that it received 
the name of Parliament. A proclamation was then issued, 
declaring, that such of the late King's judges as did not sur- 
render within forty-one days, should not receive the benefit 
of the indemnity. Nineteen of these regicides surrendered : 

18 



206 THE RESTORATION. 

some were taken, and others escaped beyond the sea. The* 
Peers seemed inclined to great severity ; but were restrained 
by the King, who, in the most earnest terms, pressed the act 
of general indemnity, which at length passed both Houses, 
with the exception of those who had an immediate hand in 
the King's death. Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, though 
dead, were considered proper objects of resentment ; their 
bodies were dug from their graves, hanged, and then buried 
under the gallows. Of the rest who sat in judgment on the 
late monarch's trial, some were dead and others were pardon- 
ed : ten only were executed, and these met their death with 
a fortitude worthy of a better cause. This was all the blood 
that was spilt upon the restoration. But these happy begin- 
nings were not of long duration : Charles's indolence and 
love of pleasure made him averse from all business ; he be- 
stowed his favours upon the worst as well as the best of his 
subjects, and took as little care to reward his friends as he 
did to punish his enemies. His continual exigencies drove 
him into measures no ways suited to his inclinations, and, 
probably with a view to procure a supply for his pleasures, 
he was induced to declare war against the Dutch. In this 
was, the English fleet, under the command of the Duke of 
York, the King's brother, met the Dutch, under Opdam their 
admiral, when a blood)' - engagement commenced. The 
Duke was in the hottest part of the fight, and behaved with 
great spirit. In the heat of the action the Dutch admiral's 
ship blew up, upon which the remainder immediately fled. 
Thirty ships were captured or sunk, while the victors lost 
but one. After various other battles, in which much blood 
was spilt and great treasures exhausted, a treaty was con- 
cluded at Breda, by which the Colony of Nova Belgia, now 
New York, was ceded to the English, and remained in their 
possession till the American war. 

During these transactions a dreadful pestilence happened 
in London, vvhich destroyed nearly 100,000 of its inhabitants. 
This was, the next year, succeeded by another calamity al- 
most as terrible, viz. a great fire, which broke out at a baker's, 
the corner of Pudding Lane, near London Bridge, and spread 
with such rapidity, that no effort could stop it till it had laid 
in ashes the greater part of the city This calamity, although 
it reduced thousands to great distress, proved beneficial to 
the city, which arose from its ruins in greater beauty than 
ever. The streets were widened ; and the houses being 
built of brick instead of wood, became more secure and 



THE RESTORATION. 207 

healthy. Notwithstanding the violence of the fire, it ia 
very remarkable that there are no accounts of any life being 
lost. 

The King now began to act in a very arbitrary manner. 
He had long wished to extend his prerogative, and to furnish 
himself with whatever sums he might want for his pleasures. 
He quickly found in Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arling- 
ton, and Lauderdale, the ministers he wanted. This junto, 
distinguished by the name of Cabal from the initials of their 
names, were notorious both for their public and private con- 
duct. The first result of their advice was a secret alliance 
with France, and a war with the Dutch. A dreadful naval 
engagement followed ; night parted the combatants : the 
Dutch retired, and the English were too much crippled to 
pursue them. The French suffered very little, and it was 
supposed that they had orders to spare their own ships, 
while the Dutch and English should weaken each other by 
their mutual exertions. The murmurs of the people, at this 
impolitic waste of their blood and treasure, at last obliged 
Charles to make peace on terms proposed by the Spanish 
ambassador, who acted as mediator. For form's sake, Charles 
asked the advice of his Parliament, and a peace was con- 
cluded. 

Scotland now became a scene of discontent : Charles was 
not ignorant of the republican spirit of the Presbyterians, 
and therefore endeavoured with all his power to establish 
episcopacy in that kingdom. Guards, commanded by Sir 
James Turner, a man of a very abandoned life and unre- 
lenting character, w r ere quartered through the country. An 
insurrection in consequence of his severity was dreaded : fresh 
troops were sent, under two officers of similar dispositions, 
who behaved with such violence that the Scots rose in arms, 
but were totally routed by the King's troops, at the battle of 
Pentland Hills. 

Ten of these misguided insurgents were executed upon 
one gibbet, and thirty-five before their own doors. These 
executions were going on when the King wrote a letter to 
the Council, ordering that such of the prisoners who would 
simply promise to obey the laws in future, should be set at 
liberty; but Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrews, purposely 
delayed giving it to the Council : at which the Covenanters 
were so enraged, that they waylaid and murdered him. 
They then once more proceeded to take up arms and make 
themselves masters of Glasgow : but they were attacked by 



208 THE RESTORATION. 

the Duke of Monmouth, at Bothwell Bridge, and totally- 
routed. The prisoners were treated with humanity : such 
as promised to live peaceably were dismissed, and about 300 
who refused this condition were shipped for Barbadoes, but 
perished by the way. 

The nation still continued to be disturbed by pretended 
plots against the King and the Government. These were 
principally the invention of that unprincipled minister Shaftes- 
bury, who secretly hated both Charles and the Catholics. 
Under his auspices was brought into Parliament the bill for 
excluding the Duke of York from the throne. He was sup- 
ported by the friends of the Duke of Monmouth, the King's 
natural son, who hoped by these means to secure the throne 
for their patron. The debates on the bill were carried on 
with great violence on both sides : it passed the House of 
Commons, but was thrown out by the Peers. All the Bish- 
ops except three voted against it, rightly judging that they 
were in much greater danger from the prevalence of Pres- 
byterianism than from Catholicity. The King was present 
during the whole debate, and had the pleasure to see the bill 
thrown out by a large majority. 

Charles now determined to humble the Presbyterians. 
They were divested of their places, and their offices given 
to such as held with the Court. The City of London, which 
had long been foremost in the popular party, was deprived 
of its charter, which was only restored upon the most hum- 
ble submission, and on the degrading condition of subjecting 
the election of the Magistrates to the King's immediate au- 
thority. The whole gang of spies, witnesses, informers, and 
suborners, who had been long employed by the leading pre- 
tended patriots, finding the King entirely master, now turned 
upon their ancient supporters, offered their evidence against 
those who had first put them in motion ; and made the Pres- 
byterians feel in their turn the cruelties they had inflicted 
upon the Catholics. 

Shaftesbury, in conjunction with Monmouth, Russel, Al- 
gernon Sydney, and John Hampden, grandson to the famous 
one of that name, now formed a conspiracy to dethrone the 
King : but this scheme, like the rest of Shaftesbury's plots, 
only ended in his disappointment; upon which he fled out 
of the kingdom to Amsterdam, where he ended his tur- 
bulent life, unpitied by his friends, and despised by his 
enemies. 



THE RESTORATION. 209 

Shortly after another plot was discovered, which had for 
its object the murder of the King, in his way from New- 
market. Rumbolt, one of the conspirators, possessed a farm 
upon that road, called the Rye-house, and thence this con- 
spiracy was called " the Rye-house Plot." The house, 
however, in which the King resided, accidentally taking 
fire, he was obliged to leave Newmarket eight days sooner 
than was expected, and this probably saved his life. 

Soon after this conspiracy was discovered, Russel, Sydney, 
and Walcot were executed. Essex cut his throat in prison. 
Hampden was fined i£40,000, and scarcely one who had a 
hand in this plot escaped, except the Duke of Monmouth, who 
was the most guilty of all. 

This was the last blood spilt on account of these plots, 
real and pretended, which had continued to disturb the na- 
tion during the greater part of this reign. Severe punish- 
ments were, however, inflicted on some for treating the 
Duke of York disrespectfully. The infamous Titus Oates, 
the principal agent in Shaftesbury's plots, was fined 
£ 100, 000 for calling the Duke a popish traitor, and to be 
imprisoned till he could pay it, v which he was never able 
to do. 

The government of Charles was now as despotic as thaf 
of any prince in Europe ; but, to please his subjects by an 
act of popularity, he married his niece, the Princess Anne, 
to Prince George, brother to the King of Denmark. This 
was the last remarkable act of his reign. On the 2d of Feb- 
ruary, 1685, he was seized with an apoplexy : upon being 
let blood, he recovered his senses, but continued in a lan- 
guishing state till the 5th, when Mr. Huddlestone, a Catho- 
lic Priest, who had been so instrumental in saving his life 
after the battle of Worcester, was sent for to attend him. 
The King declared his desire to die in the Catholic faith, and 
naving been admitted to the sacrament of penance, was asked 
f he desired to have the other sacraments of the church 
administered to him : he replied, " By all means : I desire 
to be partaker in all the helps and succours necessary for a 
Catholic Christian in my condition." He then received the 
holy communion with great devotion and humility, begging 
pardon fervently of God for his manifold sins ; and thus pre- 
pared, he died the next day, February 6th, aged 54 years 
and 8 months. 



210 THE RESTORATION. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPE. 

Innocent XI 1676 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Leopold 1658 

EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. 

Peter the Great 1682 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Mahomet IV l649!Solyman III 1687 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Louis XIV 1643 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Charles II 1665 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

Pedro II 168J 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Christian V 1678 

KINS OF SWEDEN. 

Charles II 1660 



1685. — James II, reigned 4 Years, 7 Days. 

Upon the death of Charles, his brother James entered 
into peaceable possession of the throne ; and on the first 
Sunday after his accession, openly appeared at Mass in the 
Royal Chapel. This inspired the Catholics with great confi- 
dence, and proportionably depressed the Independents, whose 
plots had been entirely laid open. Oates. that notorious im- 
postor, was sentenced to imprisonment for life ; to pay 1,000 
marks on each indictment, and stand in the pillory five times, 
annually. Prance pleaded guilty, and made afterwards a 
voluntary confession. Dangerfield, another of the impostors, 
was also sentenced to the pillory, to be whipped, and fined 
500 marks. 

Whilst the law was thus taking its course, the Government 
was threatened with an invasion, by the Duke of Monmouth 
and the Earl of Argyle. Monmouth, since the last conspi- 
racy, had resided in Holland, where he was treated with 
great attention by the Prince of Orange. Argyle landed in 
Scotland, whilst Monmouth attempted a rising in the West. 
Upon the appearance of a considerable body of the King's 



THE RESTORATION. 21L 

forces, Argyle's men were immediately dispersed ; he him- 
self was wounded, taken prisoner, and executed at Edinburgh, 
in pursuance of a former sentence against him. Monmouth 
advanced to Taunton in Somersetshire, where he was pro- 
claimed King, much to the surprise of his republican friends. 
Near Sedgmoor they were overtaken by the King's troops, 
when an engagement ensued, in which the rebels were 
defeated ; 300 were killed on the field of battle, 1,000 fell in 
the pursuit, and the rest were taken prisoners or dispersed. 
Monmouth was found in a ditch, in the disguise of a shep- 
herd, exhausted by hunger and fatigue ; and being conveyed 
to the Tower, was tried, condemned, and executed. 

This conspiracy was no sooner suppressed, than misunder- 
standings arose betwixt the King and Parliament. During 
the urgency of the occasion, James had employed several 
Catholics in the army without the qualification of the test. 
This greatly displeased the Commons, who presented an ad- 
dress to him on the occasion. But James, considering the 
power to dispense with these inabilities and penalties as a right 
invested in the crown, and which had undoubtedly been 
often exercised by his predecessors, would by no means give 
it up. Unfortunately, the King was surrounded by hypocrites 
and traitors, among which was particularly the Earl of Sun- 
derland, who, pretending a conformity in religion with the 
King, urged him to a refusal, that they might push him on 
to his ruin. By their advice, several Protestants were dis- 
placed, and Catholics put in their room. Earls Powis and 
Arundel, Lords Bellasyse and Down, all Catholics, were made 
members of the Privy Council ; and Sir Edward Hales had 
a regiment given to him, and was made one of the Lords of 
the Admiralty. Sir Edward, however, was informed against 
by one Godden, in order to try how far the lawyers stood 
affected with regard to the dispensing power. All the judges 
except one were in favour of the King's prerogative, and 
Sir Edward was accordingly acquitted, to the great joy of 
the Catholics. The King now published a proclamation, 
granting entire liberty of conscience and a freedom of reli- 
gious worship to every British subject ; to which was sub- 
joined an order, that it should be read in every church and 
chapel throughout the kingdom. This occasioned a great 
ferment among the Clergy: seven of the Bishops refused 
to obey the mandate, and were committed to the Tower. 
Their cause was brought before the Judges in the Court of 
King's Bench, where they were acquitted. This hasty and 



212 THE RESTORATION. 

imprudent proceeding completed the King's unpopularity, 
and hastened the catastrophe which his perfidious enemies 
had been long preparing. 

The Prince of Orange, who had kept up a secret corres- 
pondence with the traitors round the King, and was regu- 
larly informed by them of all the affairs in England, embraced 
the moment to put to sea with a fleet of fifty-two ships of 
war, five hundred fly-boats, sixty punts, ten fire-ships, and 
land forces consisting of 14,000 men. On the 4th of No- 
vember he reached Torbay, and the next day landed his 
army without opposition. The Earl of Dartmouth, who 
commanded the English fleet, pretended that the unfavour- 
able winds prevented his disputing the passage, or landing the 
troops. As soon as the Prince of Orange had completed his 
arrangements, he marched to Exeter : which, however, shut 
its gates against him. He remained there several days with- 
out being joined by any English of note, and at last, almost 
despairing of success, Was preparing to retrace his steps, 
when he was joined by several persons of distinction ; 
among others by Lord Churchill, who, though he had been 
raised from the rank of page, and owed his whole fortune 
to the bounty of the King, deserted from him, taking with 
him the Duke of Grafton, a natural son of the late King. 

Almost every hour now brought to James the news of 
fresh desertions ; he could no longer depend upon those who 
had appeared his most zealous friends. Even his beloved 
daughter Anne now resolved to leave him, and take part 
with the prevailing side. Upon hearing that the Princess 
had followed the rest of his favourites, he was stung with 
the most bitter anguish, and could not forbear crying out in 
the extremity of his agony, " God help me, my own children 
forsake me!" Alarmed more and more every day with the 
prospect of a general defection, he resolved to follow the 
advice of those who counselled him to quit the kingdom. 
To prepare for this, he first sent away his Queen and her 
infant son, the Prince of Wales, to Calais, and immediately 
afterwards disappeared in the night, attended only by Sir 
Edward Hales, Mr. Sheldon, and Mr. Labadie. 

Upon the news of the King's departure, a number of the 
Peers and others met, and agreed upon an address to the 
Prince of Orange, praying him to take upon himself the 
administration of affairs, and to send writs to all the boroughs, 
&c. for the election of members to meet in a national con- 
vention . 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 213 

They met accordingly, and came to the following resolu- 
tion, that "James II., having endeavoured to subvert the 
fundamental laws of the realm, and withdrawn himself from 
the kingdom, had abdicated, and the throne thereby was 
vacant." This being agreed to, it only remained to settle 
how it was to be filled. Some were for declaring the Prince 
of Orange regent ; others wishing him to be crowned king : 
a third part were for placing the crown upon the Princess of 
Orange. In the end it was agreed, that the Prince and 
Princess should be King and Queen, and should reign con- 
jointly : but that the administration of affairs should be in 
the hands of the Prince alone. James died at St. Germains. 
1701, aged 68, in the practice of mortification, penance, and 
resignation. Even his greatest enemies allow him to have- 
been a kind husband, a tender parent ; in a w ? ord, a virtuous 
man. His misfortune was to have been beset b) r traitors; 
and his faults, a zeal without prudence ; too indiscriminate a 
choice of his confidants ; and an idea of his prerogatives 
beyond their due bounds. 



CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Jlffairs, 8fc. 

Upon the accession of James I., the Catholics entertained 
great hopes, from the avowed disposition he manifested 
towards them, that now they might be relieved from their 
grievances, and enjoy the free exercise of their religion. 
This disposition of the King alarmed his ministers, who were 
therefore determined to infuse into his mind a distrust of the 
loyalty of the Catholics, and raise a ferment among the peo- 
ple, which might effectually prevent the King's inten- 
tions, and ruin their expectations. The nation, accordingly, 
resounded with the speeches of violent declaimers against 
the danger of Popery, and the secret machinations of the 
Jesuits ; the passions of the people became inflamed, and 
the feeble-minded James was forced to publish a proc- 
lamation, commanding all priests and Jesuits to leave the 
kingdom. 

In the mean time, disputes ran high between the Estab- 
lished Church and the Puritans, who had, notwithstanding 
the act of conformity, greatly increased. This induced the 



£14 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 

King to call a conference at Hampton Court, where several 
warm debates arose between the parties in the presence of 
the King and Privy Council. The Puritans complained of 
an unfair and partial management of the dispute, and there 
is no doubt that the King shewed a propensity to Episcopacy, 
frequently inculcating the maxim, " No Episcopacy, no 
King." He was not, however, so much attached to the 
Established Church as entirely to disregard the interest of 
the other party, who obtained so far as to have an alteration 
made in the Common Prayer. 

The Gunpowder Plot, in which, as we formerly men- 
tioned, it was suspected, even by many Protectant writers, 
that Cecil had a considerable share by secretly urging a few 
desperate wretches, came very opportunely to increase the 
animosity of the nation against the whole body of the Catho- 
lics. The Puritans, especially, did not fail to profit of the 
occasion, alleging, that the very principles of the Catholic 
faith engage them to such crimes. This absurd and malig- 
nant calumny, although disbelieved by thinking and sensible 
people, and by James himself, raised such a spirit of rancour 
and persecution, that the King was in a manner compelled 
to let loose the penal laws against his Catholic subjects. 

To effect their purpose, under pretence of affording the 
Catholics an opportunity to prove their loyalty, the Ministers 
employed one Perkins, a renegado Jesuit, to draw up an 
oath, under the inspection of Archbishop Bancroft, which 
was well calculated, by its ambiguity, to divide and disunite 
the Catholics as to the lawfulness of taking it; that in case 
of refusal, they might expose themselves to the penalties of 
the law, and nourish in the people an opinion of their 
enmity to the Government. Unfortunately for the Catholics, 
amidst their disagreement and uncertainty with regard to 
this oath, they had no ecclesiastical tribunal in the kingdom 
to which they could recur for the direction of their conduct. 
The last of their national bishops, Dr. Thomas Watson, of 
Lincoln, died in 1584, in prison. By his death England 
was reduced to the situation of a foreign mission, under the 
immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See, who placed the 
secular clergy under the direction of an Archpriest, the 
Rev. George Black well, with episcopal jurisdiction. The 
regular clergy were left under the superintendence of their 
own superiors. The Archpriest was one of those who main- 
tained the lawfulness of taking the oath, as did Father Pres- 
ton, superior of the Benedictines; their example drew many 



Ecclesiastical affairs, &c. 215 

to the same opinion, whilst others as strongly maintained 
the contrary. A copy of the oath was sent to Rome for the 
Pope's decision : who pronounced that it could not be taken. 
The Archpriest persisted in his approval of it, and was in 
consequence deprived of his ecclesiastical dignity, jn which 
he was succeeded by the Rev. George Birket. The English 
mission continued under the government of an Archpriest 
till 1623, when Dr. Bishop was consecrated bishop of Chal- 
cedon, and placed at the head of the Catholic Church of 
England. He chose a dean and eighteen canons as his chap- 
ter, and appointed five vicar-generals and twenty archdea- 
cons as assistants for the distant counties. Dr. Bishop died 
in 1625, the year of the demise of King James, and was 
succeeded in his dignity by Dr. Smith. 

This was the situation of affairs at the accession of 
Charles I. He had married a Catholic Queen, which afforded 
fresh cause of suspicion and jealousy. Rumours of plots were 
continually spread abroad, and the nation thus prepared, by 
repeated ferments and alarms, for the awful catastrophe of the 
Revolution, and its accompanying crimes. 

The English seminaries abroad, which owed their estab- 
lishment principally to Dr. William Allen, during the perse- 
cutions of Elizabeth, when no Catholic was allowed to open 
a school, had been long an object of alarm. In the second 
year of Charles I., after various proclamations had been 
issued, an act passed, which adopted and increased one pass- 
ed, in the first of James, against foreign education. It was 
carried into unrelenting severity : twenty-three Clergymen 
suffered death; many others were condemned. In addition 
to these sufferings, a new form of persecution was devised, 
which continued through the whole of this reign. A number 
of officers, under the name of Pursuivants, were authorized 
to apprehend Catholics, to enter and search their houses 
whenever they thought proper, to seize their books, and 
every other article which they might imagine to be used for 
any kind of devotion. Every rank in life was equally sub- 
ject to these domiciliary visits, and to the insolence and bar- 
barity with which they were often executed. 

Cromwell, at the head of the Puritans and Independents, 
had no sooner assumed the reins of government, than he 
published an order for unbounded liberty of conscience, but 
excepted Catholics and Episcopalians. To the Millenarians, 
who had a leading interest in the army, and whose fanaticism 
afforded full scope to his pious deceptions, he paid great atten* 



216 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 

tion. These men, who anxiously expected the second com 
ing of our Saviour, believed that the saints, among whom 
they considered themselves to stand in the first class, were 
alone entitled to govern in the mean time. The candidates 
for holy orders were no more perplexed with Greek or Latin 
erudition ; the principal object of scrutiny regarded their 
advance in grace, and fixing the critical moment of their 
conversion. With these pretended saints of all denomina- 
tions, who put on the appearance of great humility, he dis- 
coursed, he sighed, he wept, and prayed. But to the Cath- 
olics, whose fidelity to Charles in his misfortunes, was so 
eminently conspicuous, he shewed no mercy. Ordinances 
were passed in 1643. by which two-thirds of the real and per- 
sonal estates of Catholics were sequestered ; they were in- 
terrogated on oath as to their effects, and to make informers 
more eager, a shilling in the pound w r as given them upon 
all the property discovered. 

At the Restoration, the beneficed clergy, as Echard informs 
us, were a medley of Presbyterians, Independents, Millenari- 
ans, and Anabaptists, who hated each other, and only agreed 
in their animosity to the Catholics. Frequent attempts were 
made by them to change their liturgy, some alleging, that 
many parts were inexpedient ; others, that it was sinful. 
Upon this, the act of uniformity was again enforced, and the 
King accompanied it with a declaration, that it was intended 
to be acted upon with vigour. The Commons thought they 
perceived in this measure an intention to favour the Catho- 
lics, and therefore lost no time in petitioning the King to 
recal his declaration, and put the laws in force to stop the 
growth of Popery. 

Still they suspected Charles of a secret inclination to favour 
the Catholics, and therefore began, as had been the custom 
in former reigns, to represent them as abettors in every public 
calamity, and the contrivers of every plot against the Govern- 
ment. The great fire afforded them an opportunity to display 
their ingenuity in this way. The calumnies they circulated 
upon this dreadful catastrophe were but a prelude to many 
other nefarious measures. One of these is usually called 
"Oates's Plot," although Oates was but the instrument, the 
unprincipled Shaftsbury having the honour of the contriv- 
ance. On the 12th of August, 1678, one Thirley, a chemist, 
Dr. Tongue, and Dr. Oates, two protestant clergymen, of 
the most notoriously abandoned characters, gave in to the 
King the account of this pretended plot. Its object was to 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. &17 

kill the King, to set fire to the city, and massacre all the 
Protestants, without exception of age or condition. The 
circumstances attending this pretended discovery were so 
entirely devoid of credibility, that it is amazing how any, 
even the meanest, could give ear to them ; and, as the late 
Mr. Fox, in his history of James the Second, justly observes, 
have put "an indelible, disgrace upon the English nation, in 
which the King, Parliament, judges, juries, witnesses, prose- 
cutors, have all their respective, but certainly not their equal 
shares." So much, indeed, was done to inflame the minds 
of the people against the Catholics, that it produced a popu- 
lar delirium, and not only caused the destruction of many 
innocent persons, with loss of property and imprisonment to 
others, but every penal law was let loose, and even a general 
massacre of the Catholics was apprehended. 

The Parliament, which ought to have repressed these 
falsehoods, and brought back the people to calm inquiry ; 
were even more violent than the people themselves ; and the 
prime minister entered furiously into the plot, and persisted 
in his inquiries, notwithstanding all the King's advice to the 
contrary. Charles, the person most concerned in the affair, 
was the only one that treated it with contempt; but nothing 
could stop the public fury, and the King, not having resolu- 
tion and fortitude enough, found himself obliged to give 
way. 

Titus Oates, the grand accuser, was now produced, and, 
with seeming reluctance, gave his evidence. This man had 
formerly been indicted for perjury, and dismissed from his 
situation for the most shocking practices ; and although, on 
the present occasion, in his examination before the council, 
he contradicted himself at every step of his narrative, he 
became the favourite of the people, and was styled "The 
saviour of the nation." 

In this state of the public feeling, an accident happened 
which seemed to confirm the prejudices of the people, and 
make the narrative of Oates, which now began to lose its 
effect, be implicitly credited. Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, a 
magistrate, who had twice examined Oates upon oath, was 
found dead in a ditch near Primrose Hill, in the road to Hamp- 
stead, after having been missed for four days, with his sword 
through his body, his money in his pockets, and rings on his 
fingers. His body was carried through the streets in proces- 
sion, preceded by seventy clergymen. The populace did 
not hesitate to ascribe his death to the Papists ; and such 

19 



218 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, fee. 

was the general infatuation, that no person, who had any 
regard for his own safety, durst express the least doubt con- 
cerning the information of Oates, or of the authors of God- 
frey's murder. 

To propagate still further the alarm, an address was voted 
by Parliament for a solemn fast. It was requested that all 
Papists should be removed from London, and access denied 
to all unknown and suspicious persons. Oates was lodged 
at Whitehall, and encouraged, by a pension of £1,200 a year, 
to proceed in forging new informations. The plot, however, 
beginning to grow stale, one Bedloe was brought upon the 
stage. He was, like Oates, a man of very low birth, and had 
been noted for several cheats and robberies. This man de- 
posed that he had seen the body of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey 
at Somerset House, where the Queen resided, and that a 
servant of Lord Bellasyse had offered him £4,000 if he would 
carry it off. Finding all this greedily received, the two wit- 
nesses now determined to go still farther, and had the audacity 
to accuse the Queen. The Commons, in an address to the 
King, gave countenance to this scandalous accusation ; but 
the Lords rejected it with becoming disdain. 

As the main design of all these plotters was to exclude 
the Duke of York, a professed Catholic, from the throne, his 
secretary was the first who was brought to trial. Bedloe 
swore that he had received a commission, signed by the su- 
perior of the Jesuits, appointing him papal secretary of state, 
and that he had consented to the assassination of the King. 
After his condemnation, many members of both houses 
offered to interpose in his behalf, if he would make an ample 
confession : but as he was in reality possessed of no treasonable 
secret, he would not save his life by falsehood and imposture. 
He suffered with calmness and constancy, affirming his in- 
nocence to the last. This trial was succeeded by those of 
Fathers Ireland, Pickering, and Grove, who went to execu- 
tion with great resignation, protesting their innocence : but 
this made no impression on the spectators ; they were Jesuits, 
and therefore pity was banished from the breasts of their 
countrymen. Hill, Green, and Berry, were tried upon the 
evidence of one Prance ; and although Bedloe's narrative 
and Prance's information were entirely contradictory, and 
their testimony was invalidated by contrary evidence, all was 
vain. The prisoners were condemned and executed, deny- 
ing their guilt to the last ; but as Berry died a Protestant, 
this circumstance seemed to make some impression. White- 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 219 

bread, Fenwick, Govan, Turner, and Harcourt, five Jesuits, 
were next brought to trial, and soon after Counsellor Lang- 
horn. In this trial a new witness appeared against the pris- 
oners, named Dugdale. This man spread the alarm still 
further, by asserting that there were 200,000 Papists in 
England ready to rise in arms. It was proved that Oates 
was at St. Omer's at the time he swore he was in Lon- 
don; but all availed nothing; they were condemned and 
executed. 

They were not, however, so successful on the trial of Sir 
George Wakeman, the Queen's Physician. They forswore 
themselves in so palpable a manner, that the jury could not 
avoid observing it, and the prisoner was in consequence 
acquitted. 

The Earl of Stafford was the last man that fell a sacrifice 
to wretches, who lived by perjury and blood. He was con- 
demned, and executed on Tower-hill, where even his perse- 
cutors could not help shedding tears at that serene fortitude, 
which shone in every feature, motion, and accent of this 
aged nobleman. 

The Meal-tub plot was the next contrivance. One Dan- 
gerfield, more infamous if possible than Oates or Bedloe ; 
a wretch who had stood in the pillory ; had been whipped, 
branded, and transported for coining, was admitted as evi- 
dence of a design to remove the King and new-model the 
government. The pretended conspirators were brought to 
trial, but were all acquitted, as it was now clearly discovered 
that nothing but bribes and revenge had prompted the whole 
gang of informers, and that their secret supporters were a 
faction who really designed to subvert the government and 
murder the King, as it afterwards clearly appeared by the 
discovery of the Rye-house Plot. Oates was subsequently 
deprived of his pension, and afterwards fined and im- 
prisoned. 

To aggravate still more the persecutions which the Catho- 
lics endured during this reign, three acts were passed : first, 
the Corporation Act, which enacted that no person should 
hold any office in the government of any city or corporation, 
unless within a twelvemonth before he had received the 
sacrament, according to the rites and ceremonies of the 
Church of England, and taken the oaths of allegiance and 
supremacy. Second, the Test Act, which obliged all officers 
civil and military to take the oaths of allegiance and supre- 
macy ; to make the declaration against the doctrine of tran* 



220 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, &c. 

substantiation ; and receive the sacrament according to the 
usage of the Church of England. Third, another act, by 
which a declaration was also to be made against Popery, in- 
vocation of the Virgin Mary, and the Mass. It enacted also, 
that no Peer should vote in the Lords, nor any member in 
the Commons, till he had taken the oaths of allegiance and 
supremacy, and subscribed the above declaration. By 
very great efforts, the Duke of York was exempted from 
this act. 

The first step taken by James II. was in his speech in 
Parliament to claim the dispensing power: but the House 
of Commons voted an address against it. Foiled in his hopes 
of intimidating the Parliament into acquiescence, he endea- 
voured to gain his point through the medium of the courts 
of justice. He gave Sir Edward Hales a colonelcy, and 
dispensed with the provisions of the Test Act. Upon prose- 
cution, Sir Edward pleaded the dispensation, and James 
having previously displaced four of the judges, and sub- 
stituted others in their place, Sir Edward gained his cause. 

This success encouraged James to bolder measures; he 
brought five Catholic Lords, and Father Petre, a Jesuit, into 
the Privy Council ; made Arundel privy seal ; put Lord Bel- 
lasyse at the head of the Treasury, and advanced several 
Catholics in the army and navy. 

His next step was to send an ambassador to Rome. The 
Pope, who saw the hasty and imprudent measures of James, 
received him coolly, but sent a Nuncio to England. James 
gave him a public reception at Windsor ; four Catholic Bishops 
were consecrated by the Nuncio in public ; and several of 
the Clergy were permitted to appear publicly in the habits 
of their order. 

James now ventured upon a step which caused a very 
great sensation among all the members of the Established 
Church : he ordered the Bishop of London to suspend one 
Dr. Sharp, for mentioning in his sermon the conversion of 
some Protestants to the Catholic faith in terms of reproach. 
The Bishop refused to comply; upon which James issued a 
commission, by which seven persons were appointed with 
unlimited powers, as in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Eliza- 
beth, over the Church of England. They immediately 
proceeded against the Bishop and the Doctor, who were 
suspended from their functions. 

He then attempted to nominate a Catholic president to 
Magdalen College, Oxford, and procured seven of the 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, AND COMMERCE. 221 

Bishops who had petitioned against it to be committed to 
the Tower: which completed the popular discontent, and 
prepared the nation for the revolution which shortly fol- 
lowed. 



CHAPTER III. 

Lxws, Government, and Commerce. 

Under the reign of the Stewarts, the nation, by a natural 
concurrence of events, began to shew the same spirit of 
innovation, and resistance to the government, in matters of 
liberty, as had been infused into them in the matters of 
religion, and a spirit of opposition displayed itself, to which 
the British monarchs had not for a long time been accustom- 
ed. But the storm which was only gathering during the 
reign of James I., burst with all its fury on Charles I., who 
had to cope with a whole nation, put in motion by the crafty 
wiles of an unprincipled ministry. The high notions of 
prerogative which the Stuarts entertained, their indolence, 
irresolution, and fondness for favourites, did not a little con- 
tribute to their misfortunes. Compulsory wars, arbitrary im- 
prisonment, martial law, the high commission court, the star 
chamber, which had been the apparatus of the Tudors, being 
again attempted by the Stuarts, when liberty was carried 
to licentiousness, the constitution was rent asunder, and 
the unfortunate Charles fell, an awful example to the 
universe. 

The royal authority thus annihilated, fruitless attempts 
were made to substitute a republican form of government in 
its stead. Subjected at first to the power of the principal 
leaders in the Long Parliament, they saw that power expire, 
only to pass without bounds into the hands of the Protector. 

Charles II. was then called over : but the spirit of rebel- 
lion and caballing was not extinguished, and the desire of 
once more causing a revolution still filled the breasts of 
some unprincipled wretches, who, to gain their ends, had 
recourse to all sorts of calumnies and inventions against 
Catholics, to whom it was known Charles was secretly 
attached, and whose religion his brother, afterwards James 
II., professed. In this reign, however, that barrier of per- 
sonal safety the Habeas Corpus act was established, and tri- 
ennial parliaments enacted. In the reign of James I., 



22-2 LEARNING, ARTS, &c. 

colonies were planted along the coast of North America, 
which now form that flourishing kingdom, the United States. 
These greatly contributed to promote that spirit of industry 
and commerce, which has raised Britons to so pre-eminent 
a station among the powers of Europe. The East- India 
Company having received a new patent from James, increased 
their stock to a million and a half. In 1609, they built a 
vessel of 1,200 tons burden, the largest merchant ship Eng- 
land had ever known. 

From the restoration to the revolution, commerce and 
riches rapidly increased. The two Dutch wars, by disturb- 
ing the trade of that republic, promoted the navigation of 
England. In the reign of James I. copper half-pence and 
farthings were coined. Most of the silver pennies having 
disappeared, retail business was till then chiefly carried on 
by means of leaden tokens. The coins of Cromwell exceed 
in execution any of that age. James II. coined gold pieces 
of the value of five pounds. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Learning, Arts, #c. 

Although the authors in the reign of James I. were many, 
both in prose and verse, they wrote mostly in a bad taste. 
Puns and quibbles were even propagated from the throne. 
The great glory of literature in this age was Lord Bacon, 
whose variety of talent as an author, a wit, a philosopher, a 
man of business, and a public speaker, justly claims the tri- 
bute of admiration. In the turbulent reign of Charles L, 
men of great abilities made their appearance. Then it was 
that the force and compass of our language were first fully 
tried, in the bold eloquence of the two parties, and the pub- 
lic papers of the King and Parliament. Amidst the thick 
cloud of fanaticism which overspread the nation during the 
Commonwealth, the celebrated Boyle promoted his philoso- 
phical researches. After the restoration, he, in conjunction 
with Wilkins, who had married Cromwell's sister, procured 
a patent, and having enlarged their number, were denomi- 
nated the Royal Society. But the patent was all they 
obtained from Charles : his craving courtiers and unlawful 
pleasures engrossed all his means, and left him neither 
money nor attention for literary merit. 






MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. 223 

Agriculture had been for centuries very imperfectly under- 
stood in Britain : but at this period considerable improvements 
were made in that beneficial art. The nation, however, was 
still dependant on foreign supply for their daily bread. Two 
millions sterling went out at one time for corn. It was not 
till the fifth of Elizabeth that the exportation of corn was 
allowed in England : and Camden observes, that agriculture 
from that moment received new life and vigour. 

Before the civil wars, architecture and the fine arts were 
favoured at court, and a good taste began to prevail in the 
nation under Charles I., who employed Inigo Jones as mas- 
ter of his buildings. This monarch notwithstanding his 
scanty revenue, lived in such magnificence, that he possess- 
ed twenty-four elegantly furnished palaces. He greatly 
delighted in pictures, sometimes handled the pencil himself, 
and was a connoisseur in the art.>. The pieces of foreign 
masters were bought up at a great expense. Vandyke was 
caressed and enriched at court. Laws, who had not been 
surpassed by any musician before him, was also much taken 
notice of by the King, who called him the father of music. 
In poetry, Waller, N whose taste was formed under the first 
Charles, and who wrote during the brightest days of the 
second, is one of the chief refiners of our versification as 
well as language. But though the reign of Charles II. was 
crowded with writers and men of genius, it cannot be called 
the era of delicate or modest sentiments, and consequently 
good taste. 



CHAPTER V. 

Manners, Customs, Sfc. 

During the reign of James I. the pride of birth greatly 
prevailed. The gentry and nobility distinguished themselves 
by a stiff dignity and stateliness of behaviour. Great wealth 
acquired by commerce was rare, and had not then succeeded 
in mixing all ranks of men, and rendering money the chief 
distinction. The expenses of the higher rank consisted in 
pomp and show, and a numerous retinue, rather than con- 
venience and true pleasure. The earl of Nottingham, in 
his embassy to Spain, was attended by 500 persons. The 
fury of duelling prevailed more at this time than at any 
period before or since. 



224 MANNERS, CUSTOMS, &c. 

The condition of the English gentry, under so mild a 
prince as James, was peculiarly happy. No taxes were 
levied, no wars waged, no attendance at court required. The 
King did not effect splendid equipages, nor costly furniture, 
nor a luxurious table, nor had he prodigal courtezans. Hunt- 
ing was his chief amusement, the cheapest pleasure in 
which a king can indulge. His expenses were the result 
of liberality, rather than extravagance. One day, while he 
was with some of his courtiers, a porter passed by, loaded 
with money, which he was carrying to the royal treasury. 
The King observed that Rich, who was afterwards Earl 
Holland, whispered something to one standing near him. 
Upon inquiring. James found that Rich had said, " How 
happy would that money make me !" The King instantly 
bestowed it upon him, to the mount of £3,000, saying, 
"I think myself happy in obliging a worthy man whom I 
love." 

Charles II. was a man of easy and lively manners, and 
his courtiers affected the same character. They were chiefly 
men of the world ; and, having experienced the effect of 
Puritanical hypocrisy, which formed the leading feature in 
the manners of the Republicans during the usurpations of 
the Long Parliament and Oliver Cromwell, they fell into the 
other extreme, and, without shame or disguise, violated the 
laws of religion, decency, and decorum, and a general 
relaxation of manners took place till the reign of James II., 
who was a prince of religious and moral habits, and there- 
fore discountenanced the general licentiousness that pre- 
vailed. 

Curious Particulars. 

In the year 1626, the barometer was invented by Torri- 
celli, a famous Italian mathematician : and, about the same 
time, Dabelling, a celebrated Dutch philosopher, invented 
the thermometer and microscope. Logarithms were first 
invented by Lord Napier in Scotland. 

In 1635, a General Post-Office was established ; as was 
the Bank of England in 1646. 

Coffee was first introduced into England in 1652; and 
tea about six years after, when it cost £3 per lb. 

In 1662, pendulum clocks were made by Fromentel, a 
Dutchman. During the same year fire engines were first used. 

In 1668, St. James's Park was planted, and made a tho- 
roughfare for the public by Charles II. 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. £25 



BOOK IX. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Alexandti VIII 1689 I Clement XI 1700 

Innocent XII 1691 I < 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Leopold 1658 

EMPEROR OP RUSSIA. 

Peter the Great 1682 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Solymanlll 1687 iMustapha II 1695 

Achmet II 1691 I 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Louis XIV 1643 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Charles II 1665 1 Philip V 1700 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

Pedro II 1683 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Christian V 1670 

KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

Charles XL 1660 1 Charles XII 1697 

KING OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederic 1 1701 



Military History, from the Revolution, in 1688, to the end 
of the reign of George III., containing a space of 131 
Yeats* 



16S9. — William III. and Mary II., reigned 13 Years. 

After William's accession to the throne, James sought an 
asylum in France, where he was received with the most 
cordial hospitality by the French King, who offered him a 
body of 15,000 French troops, to assist in regaining his 



226 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

kingdom ; but James replied, that he would succeed by his 
own subjects alone, or perish in the attempt. He contented 
himself with about 1,200 British troops ; and, embarking at 
Brest, arrived at Kinsale in Ireland, on the 22d of May 
1689. He soon after entered Dublin, amidst the acclama- 
tions of the inhabitants. He found the Lord Lieutenant, 
Tyrconnel, devoted to his interest, his old army steady, and 
a new one raised, amounting together to 40,000 men. 

As soon as the season would permit, he marched to Cole- 
raine, of which he possessed himself, and laid siege to Lon- 
donderry; which, though of no great importance in itself, is 
rendered famous by the perseverance with which it opposed 
all the attacks of the besiegers. The inhabitants endured 
the utmost fatigue and distress, being reduced to subsist on 
the most loathsome food, till they were at last relieved by a 
store-ship, which broke the boom laid across the river to pre- 
vent a supply, and arrived in safety, to the inexpressible joy 
of the besieged, and the disappointment of James's army, 
who were so dispirited, that they abandoned the siege, after 
having lost above 9,000 men before the place. 

The Duke of Schomberg, William's general, soon after 
landed without opposition, and invested Carrickfergus, into 
which he threw above 1,000 bombs, which laid the town in 
ashes. The brave garrison, having spent their last barrel of 
powder, were obliged to capitulate, and marched out with 
all the honours of war ; but Schomberg's soldiers, disregard- 
ing the capitulation, under pretence of cruelties committed 
by the Catholics, plundered and stripped the unfortunate 
inhabitants, without regard to sex or quality, and even pub- 
licly whipped some of the women between the lines. 

William now took the command, and coming within sight 
of James at the Boyne, resolved to give him battle. Pre- 
vious to the attack, William proceeded to review his troops ; 
and riding along the lines for that purpose, was perceived 
by the enemy, who levelled a gun at him, which killed 
several of his attendants, and wounded him in the shoulder. 
It was immediately reported that the King was slain ; but as 
soon as his wound was dressed, he rode through the ranks, 
and quickly undeceived them. 

The next morning, June 30th, the battle began. James's 
forces behaved with great gallantry ; but, unable to stand 
against the superior discipline and coolness of the English, 
*hey were broken and dispersed, with the loss of 1,500 men. 
William lost about a third of that number ; but among these 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 227 

was the Duke of Schomberg, who was accidentally killed by 
a discharge of his own troops, while he was in the midst of 
a body of the enemy. During the action, James stood on 
the hill of Dunmore, surrounded with some squadrons of 
horse : and, at intervals, was heard to exclaim, when he saw 
his own troops repulsing their enemies, " O, spare my Eng- 
lish subjects !" an exclamation which, though it does not add 
to his fame as a general, at least proves the goodness of his 
heart. He seems, however, to have lost all his resolution at 
this time, and even while his troops were yet fighting, he 
quitted his station, and fled to Waterford, where he embarked 
for France. 

When he first deserted his troops at the Boyne, O'Regan, 
an old Irish captain, was heard to say, that if the English 
would exchange generals, the conquered army would fight 
them over again. 

The victory of the Boyne was by no means decisive ; and 
the friends of James, notwithstanding his flight, still opposed 
William. Saarsfield, a popular and experienced general, 
put himself at the head of the routed army, and marched to 
defend the Shannon. As James, however, had appointed 
St. Ruth to command over him, the Irish were universally 
discontented. On the other side, Ginkell, who had been 
appointed to the command of the English army, marched to 
meet him. The only fordable place was at Athlone, a strong 
town, built on both sides of the river. The English soon 
made themselves masters of the one part, while the other, 
being defended with great obstinacy, was considered impreg- 
nable ; but a body of English advancing through the stream, 
and performing this desperate attempt with determined reso- 
lution, drove the enemy from their works, and forced them 
to surrender at discretion. St. Ruth, who was hastening to 
its relief, arrived only to have his own guns turned against 
him. Marching off, he took post at Aughrim, where he 
determined to await the enemy. The English were 18,000 
strong, the Irish 25,000. A desperate engagement ensued, 
till St. Ruth being killed, his troops gave way, after a loss of 
5,000 men, and retreated to Limerick, into which place Gin- 
kell suffered as many as chose to retire, wishing to put an 
end to the war at once. 

The siege of Limerick commenced August 25, 1091. 
Six weeks passed without any thing decisive. The garrison 
was well supplied with provisions, and every means of 
defence. Winter approached, and Ginkell had orders to 



228 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

finish the war upon any terms : he therefore offered such 
conditions that, even if the Irish had been victors, they 
could scarcely have refused them with prudence. It was 
agreed that the attainders should be annulled, the forfeited 
estates be restored, and that the Catholics should enjoy the 
same toleration in religion as in the reign of Charles II., and 
that no oath but that of allegiance should be required of 
any one. In consequence of this treaty, the hopes of James 
were entirely at an end in Ireland, which quietly submitted 
to the English government. 

During the war in Ireland, many wanton acts of barbarity 
had been committed ; but in Scotland, in 1692, one far more 
atrocious took place, where Macdonald and all his clan, hav- 
ing neglected to take the oaths, were massacred in cold blood, 
under very enormous breaches of hospitality and friendship. 
All the houses were burnt to the ground, and the cattle and 
spoil divided among the soldiers. 

The total reduction of Ireland, and the extermination or 
dispersion of the Highland chiefs who favoured his cause, 
did not entirely put an end to the hopes of James's party. 
Several of the Whigs joined themselves to the Tories, and 
made advances to the adherents of James : but their plan 
was betrayed, and Lord Preston and Mr. Ash ton, whom they 
had deputed, w r ere both seized and condemned. Ashton 
died without making any disclosures ; but Lord Preston, 
upon promise of a pardon, revealed the whole plot. 

The French at last became sensible of their bad policy, in 
not having more effectually supported James, and now resolv- 
ed to make a descent on England. In pursuance of this 
design, James was furnished with an army, consisting of a 
considerable body of French troops, some Scotch and English 
refugees, and the Irish regiments who had left Limerick at 
the capitulation, and had now necome excellent soldiers. 
This army assembled under James in person near La Houge, 
while Tourville, the French admiral, w r ith sixty-three ships 
of the line, was to favour the descent. 

These preparations and all the plans were soon made 
known to the English ministry by their spies. Admiral 
Russel w^as ordered to sea with all possible expedition, and 
discovering the French fleet off La Hogue, he prepared with 
ninety-nine sail of the line to give them battle. The engage- 
ment began with great fury, and lasted for ten hours, when 
victory declared for the English. The French fled with the 
loss of four ships, and were pursued during the two following 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 229 

days. On the first day of the pursuit, three French ships 
were destroyed, and eighteen more were burnt in the bay of 
La Hogue. During the battle, James, who with his army 
viewed the engagement, was heard to exclaim, notwithstand- 
ing the extinction of his hopes, " See my brave English!" 

So decisive was this blow, that from that time France en- 
tirely lost her pretensions to equality upon the ocean. James 
from this time resigned himself quietly to his fate : no fur- 
ther attempts were made in his favour, though some plots, 
it was said, were laid to assassinate William : but James, so 
far from countenancing any of these, as some of his enemies 
have advanced, always expressed his utmost abhorrence of 
them ; and the exemplary life he led in his retirement, his 
resignation ; his austerities and his piety, are alone a sufficient 
refutation of any such calumnies. He lived about seven 
years after this, and in his last illness, calling for his son, after 
much salutary advice, he conjured him to prefer his religion 
to any worldly advantage: a counsel which that prince 
strictly observed. 

The war with France continued during the greater part 
of William's reign ; but at length an end was put to it by the 
treaty of Ryswick. In the general pacification the interests 
of England seem to have been entirely neglected ; and the 
only equivalent she received for all the blood she had shed, 
and all the treasure she had spent, was an acknowledgment 
of King William's title from the King of France. 

Peace being thus established, there was now no reason for 
keeping up a large army ; but William, who hardly thought 
himself king without military command, was unwilling to 
lessen those forces which had been granted during a period 
of danger. The Commons, however, to his great mortifica- 
tion, passed a vote, that all forces in the English pay, except- 
ing a body of 7,000 men, should be immediately disbanded, 
and that those retained should be natural-born subjects. 
With this vote the King was so displeased, that he is said to 
have formed a design of quitting the nation : but he was per- 
suaded by his ministry to abandon the measure, and consent to 
the passing of the bill. William, however, could not live with- 
out being at variance with his great political rival, the French 
king ; and was busily employed in forming a powerful con- 
federacy against him, when death put an end to all his pro- 
jects. He expired March 8th, 1702, leaving behind him the 
character of a great politician and a formidable general. 

20 



230 MILITARY HISTORY, Stc. 

Cotemporary Princes. 

POPE. 

Clement XI 1700 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

Leopold 1658 1 Charles VI 1711 

Joseph 1 1705 I 

EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. 

Peter the Great 1682 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Mustapha II 1695|Achmet III 1703 

KING OF FRANCE. 

Louis XIV 1643 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Philip V 1700 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

Pedro II 1683J John V 1707 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Frederic IV 1669 

KING OF SWEDEN. 

Charles XII 1697 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederic I. 1701 |Frederic II 1713 



1702.— Anne. 

Anne, the second daughter of James by his first wife, 
ascended the throne at the age of thirty-eight ; and pursuing 
the same system of politics as her predecessor William, war 
was immediately declared against France by England, Ger- 
many, and Holland, on the same day. Lewis, who had not 
been able to suppress his joy at the news of William's death, 
was filled with indignation on the intelligence of such a 
combination. The Duke of Marlborough was appointed to 
command the British foices, and made generalissimo of the 
allied armies. In his first campaign, after forcing the French 
under Marshal Boufflers to retire before him, he took the city 
of Liege, in which he found an immense sum of money ; 
and made a vast number of prisoners, which consoled the 
nation for some unsuccessful expeditions by sea. The next 
year Marlborough opened the campaign with the siege of 
Bonn, which held out but a few days. Thuin was retaken 
after a vigorous defence : Limburgh surrendered in two days; 



MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 231 

and thus ended the second campaign, which secured to the 
allies the country of Liege and the electorate of Cologne. 

In the campaign of 1704, the French king, finding Bouf- 
flers unable to oppose Marlborough, appointed Marshal 
Villeroy in his place : but Marlborough, who like Hannibal 
was remarkable for studying the dispositions of his antagonists, 
having no great fears of Villeroy, immediately flew to the 
assistance of the Emperor : taking with him a body of 13,000 
British troops, he advanced with great rapidity to the Danube, 
where he defeated at Donawert a body of French and Bava- 
rians, and laid the dukedom of Bavaria under contribution. 
Marshal Tallard in the mean time had marched with 30,000 
men to oppose his return, and was joined by the Duke of 
Bavaria. Their united army amounted to 60,000 men, com- 
manded by the two best generals of France. To oppose 
them, Marlborough was joined by 30,000 men under the 
celebrated Prince Eugene. Their united forces consisted 
of 52,000 men. After various marches and counter-marches, 
the two armies met at Blenheim. Here a terrible engage- 
ment ensued, in which the French were entirely defeated, 
with the loss of 12,000 killed on the field of battle, or drown- 
ed in the Danube, and upwards of 20,000 prisoners ; and a 
country of 100 leagues in extent fell into the hands of the 
victors. The British were equally fortunate at sea : Gibral- 
tar was taken by Sir George Rooke and the Prince of Hesse. 
The British fleet soon after came up with that of France, 
and a battle was fought with great fury during six hours, 
when the van of the French giving way, the whole fleet 
followed their example ; nor could it afterwards be brought 
to renew the action. The Spaniards in the mean time made 
an attempt upon Gibraltar, but their fleet was dispersed or 
taken, and their army gave up the enterprise. 

In Spain, the Earl of Peterborough with 9,000 men took 
the city of Barcelona, and successively became master of the 
kingdoms of Arragon and Granada; of the strong city of 
Carthagena, and at last of Madrid the capital, which he en- 
tered in triumph, and proclaimed Charles III. King of Spain 
without opposition. These were, however, considered as 
minor conquests ; the victories of Marlborough alone en- 
giossecl the attention of the nation. In 1706, the Duke met 
the French under Villeroy, near the village of Ramillies : 
an engagement ensued, in which the English gained a vic- 
tory almost as complete as that of Blenheim, and the whole 
pountry became the prize of the conquerors, 



232 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

The French troops were now dispirited : Paris itself trem- 
bled ; and Lewis, who had long flattered himself with the 
hopes of conquest, was humbled to such a degree as to in- 
treat, and even beg for peace : but the allies were too much 
flushed with their success to grant it : they continued to 
carry all before them ; and the capital of the French mon- 
arch began to dread the approach of the conquerors. But 
what neither the armies nor the politics of Lewis could effect, 
was brought about by a party in England. The dissensions 
between the Whigs and the Tories saved France, which now 
seemed tottering to its ruin. The councils of the Queen 
had been hitherto governed by a Whig ministry ; but in the 
nation a general spirit of Toiyism prevailed. They began 
to form plans in opposition to Marlborough : they considered 
him as a self-interested man, who sacrificed the real interest 
of the nation, in protracting an expensive war, for his own 
private glory and emolument, as he had formerly done in 
regard of his king and master James II. They saw their 
country oppressed by the continuance of the war ;^ Spain 
had been lost ; a part of the fleet under Sir Cloudesley 
Shovel had been sunk in a storm ; reverses had been expe- 
rienced in Germany, and their hopes had been disappointed 
in the Duke of Marlborough, who passed this campaign in 
marches and counter-marches for want of supplies from 
home. 

These causes of general murmur and discontent soon 
brought about the dissolution of the Whig ministry. Pre- 
vious, however, to their disgrace, they effected a measure 
of the greatest importance, viz. the union of the two king- 
doms of England and Scotland. This had been attempted 
at the commencement of Queen Anne's reign, but some dis- 
putes arising relative to trade, the conference was broken 
up. Commissioners were now appointed : the articles were 
soon agreed on, and laid before both Parliaments. Consid- 
erable opposition was at first made in both countries, par- 
ticularly in Scotland, where the thoughts of losing their 
independent government overbalanced all idea of interest, 
and fired the Scotch with resentment. But at length, not- 
withstanding all opposition, every article was approved by 
both Parliaments, and thus all were obliged to acquiesce in 
a union, of which, at first, they had not sufficient sagacity 
to distinguish the advantages. The Duke of Marlborough in 
the mean time had passed over to Flanders, and the two 
armies met at Oudenade, where the French were once mon 



MILITARY HISTORY, fee. 233 

defeated, and lost Lisle, Ghent, Bruges, and every town in 
Flanders. In the campaign of 1709, Tournay, an exceed- 
ingly strong town, garrisoned by 12,000 men, was taken 
after a terrible siege of twenty-one days. Next followed the 
bloody battle of Malplaquet, where the French, 120,000 
strong, were fortified in a position that seemed inaccessible. 
Nothing, however, was able to stand before the allied army; 
the French were driven from their fortifications, though with 
the great loss of 20,000 men on the side of the allies. 

The last campaign of the Duke of Marlborough, in 1711, 
is said to have excelled all his former exploits : he so con- 
trived his measures, that by marching and counter-marching, 
he induced Villars to quit a strong line of intrenchments 
without striking a blow. By such a continuance of success, 
he had gained to the allies a prodigious extent of country. 
From the beginning of the war till the expiration of his 
command he had perpetually advanced, and never lost any 
advantage which he had obtained. He frequently gained 
the enemy's posts without fighting; but where he was obliged 
to attack, no fortifications were able to resist him. He had 
never besieged a city which he did not take, nor engaged in 
a battle in which he did not come off victorious. Upon his 
return to England, however, after this campaign, the Queen, 
who now acted by the advice of the Tories, being resolved 
to make peace with France, dismissed the Duke of Marl- 
borough, and gave the command to the Duke of Ormond, 
who had orders only to act on the defensive. Hence the 
operations languished, till at last peace was concluded be- 
tween England and France, in 1713. In it was stipulated 
that Philip, now acknowledged King of Spain, should re- 
nounce all right to the throne of France ; that the Duke of 
Berri, Philip's brother, should also renounce his right to the 
crown of Spain in case he became king of France ; and 
that the Duke of Savoy should possess the Island of Sicily 
with the title of King. The Dutch had the barrier granted 
them which they so much desired. The fortifications of 
Dunkirk were destroyed. Spain ceded Gibraltar and the 
island of Minorca, and France resigned her pretensions to 
Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and Nova Scotia. The Kin^ 
of Prussia had Upper Guelderland ; and the Emperor, in 
case of acceding to the treaty, was to have the kingdom of 
Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands!.. 
This famous treaty was signed at Utrecht, on the 31st of 
May 1713. 

20* 



234 MILITARY HISTORY, &c. 

The latter part of Queen Anne's reign was a scene of in- 
trigues between the Whigs and the Tories. The violence 
of these two parties, their cabals and tumults, made the sit- 
uation of the Queen, who had not abilities nor vigour enough 
to repress them, very uncomfortable : her health declined ; 
she fell into a lethargic slumber, and her distemper gained 
ground so fast, that the next day all her physicians despaired 
of her life. The members of the Privy Council were now 
summoned, and a letter was sent to the Elector of Hanover, 
requesting him immediately to repair to England. Precau- 
tions were at the same time taken to secure the seaports ; and 
the command of the fleet was given to Earl Berkley, a pro- 
fessed Whig. These measures answered a double purpose : 
they shewed the alacrity of the Whigs in the cause of their 
new Sovereign, and implied that the state was in danger 
from the opposite party. Queen Anne died on the 1st of 
August 1714, in the fiftieth year of her age, and thirteenth 
of her reign. 



Cotemporary Sovereigns. 

POPES. 

Clement XI 1700 I Benedict XIII 1724 

Innocent XIII . 1721 | 

EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 

Charles IV 1711 

EMPEROR AND EMPRESS OF RUSSIA. 

Peter the Great 1682 1 Catharine 1 1725 

EMPEROR OF THE TURKS. 

Achmet III 1703 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Louis XIV 1643J Louis XV 1715 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Philip V 1700 

KING OF PORTUGAL. 

John V. . . 1707 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Frederic IV 1699 

KING AND Q.UEEN OF SWEDEN. 

Charles XII 1697 [Ulrica Leonora 171& 

KING OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederic II 1713 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 235 



The House of Brunswick. 

-1714. — George L, reigned 12 Years, 9 Months. 

According to the act of succession, George, son of Ernest 
Augustus, Elector of Brunswick, and the Princess Sophia, 
grand-daughter of James I., ascended the British throne. 
An instantaneous and total change was soon efFected in 
every office of honour and advantage. The Tories, who were 
now styled Jacobites, and against whom George had been led 
into strong prepossessions, were excluded from all share in 
the royal favour, which was wholly engrossed by the Whigs, 
who were also called Hanoverians. These early marks of 
aversion, which the King took no pains to conceal, alienated 
the minds of many from his person and government, who 
might otherwise have served him with fidelity and affection. 
Among the principal changes, the Duke of Ormond was in 
his turn dismissed from the command of the army, which 
was restored to the Duke of Marlborough. Mr. Pulteney 
became Secretary at War ; and Mr. Walpole, who had already 
undertaken to manage the House of Commons, was gratified 
with the double place of Paymaster to the Army and to 
Chelsea Hospital. These partialities excited much discon- 
tent ; tumults became frequent, and every tumult served to 
increase the severity of the Legislature. An act was passed, 
declaring that if any persons to the number of twelve unlaw- 
fully assembled, should not within one hour disperse after 
being required to do so by a j ustice of the peace, and after 
hearing the riot act read, they should be deemed guilty of 
felony without benefit of clergy. This was certainly a severe 
act, and a great restriction to the liberty of the subject, as by 
it all meetings of the people, either for amusement or redress, 
were rendered criminal, if a magistrate should please to con- 
sider them as such. These proceedings excited great indigna- 
tion, particularly in Scotland, where to these grievances were 
joined that of the Union, which they were taught to con- 
sider as oppressive. The malcontents among the Scotch 
kept up a secret correspondence with those of England, till, 
considering their plans ripe for execution, the Earl of Marr 
assembled his vassals, proclaimed James III., and being joined 
by about 10,000 men, well armed and provided, he made 
himself master of the whole province of Fife. Proceeding 
to Dumblain, he encountered the Duke of Argyle : a battle 



236 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

was fought, in which both sides claimed the victory, though 
the advantage rested with the Duke, who thus interrupted 
the progress of his antagonist. 

In England, the Earl of Derwentwater and Mr. Foster 
took the field with a body of horse ; and being joined by 
some gentlemen from the borders of Scotland, they pro- 
claimed James III. in Worksworth, Morpeth, and Alnwick. 
They next attempted to seize Newcastle : but being unsuc- 
cessful, they retired towards Scotland, where they were 
reinforced by some of the Scottish insurgents. With these 
they again returned into England ; but their forces being 
without subordination, and their chiefs disunited, they were 
overpowered at Preston, in Lancashire, by the King's forces, 
under Generals Carpenter and Wills, and obliged to lay 
down their arms. 

James, now styled the Pretender, had flattered himself 
with the hope of seeing the whole kingdom of England rise 
in his behalf; but he was soon undeceived, by a fruitless 
voyage which the Duke of Ormond made to the western 
coast, to sound the dispositions of the people. Nothing now 
remained for him but to hazard his person among his friends 
in Scotland. He accordingly landed in that country, and 
was solemnly proclaimed at Scone, where he exercised some 
acts of royalty ; but on the approach of Argyle, with a rein- 
forcement of 6,000 Dutch troops, the chiefs of his party, 
finding themselves destitute of arms, money, and ammuni- 
tion, abandoned the enterprise, and withdrew to their homes. 
The unfortunate James, after some of the most romantic 
escapes and adventures, embarked on board a small French 
ship, and in five days arrived safely at Gravelines, attended 
by the Earl of Marr and a few Scottish noblemen. 

Such was the issue of a rebellion that proved fatal to many 
noble families. The Earls of Derwentwater, Nithisdale, 
Wintown, and Carnwath, together with Lords Widdrington, 
Kenmuir, and Nairn, were impeached and found guilty. 
Lord Nithisdale had the good fortune to escape by means ot 
his wife, who dressed him in her clothes. -Derwentwater 
and Kenmuir were beheaded on Tower Hill; twenty-two 
were executed at Preston and Manchester; four or five were 
hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn ; and about a thou- 
sand were transported to North America. 

The year 1718 was remarkable for the signing of the 
famous quadruple alliance at London, between the Empe- 
ror, Great Britain, France, and Holland, in which it was 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 237 

agreed that the Emperor should renounce all pretensions 
to the crown of Spain, and exchange Sardinia for Sicily 
with the Duke of Savoy ; and that the succession of the 
duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia, should be settled 
on the Queen of Spain's eldest son, in case the present pos- 
sessors should die without male issue. 

This treaty was not, however, pleasing to the Spaniards, 
and proved the cause of a war between the two countries. 
Upon its commencement, a squadron of twenty-two ships, 
under Admiral Byng, was ordered to cruize in the Mediter- 
ranean. Upon turning Cape Faro, near Messina, two small 
Spanish vessels were perceived. Byng pursued them closely, 
and thus was led to their main fleet, which he discovered in 
line of battle. The Spaniards, notwithstanding a superiority 
of numbers, attempted to sail away; but finding this impos- 
sible, they kept up a running fight. They were all taken 
except three, which were preserved by the good conduct of 
their vice-admiral, a native of Ireland. 

This was thought a favourable juncture for the Pretender. 
Spain furnished the .Duke of Ormond with ten ships of war 
and transports having on board 6,000 troops, with arms for 
12,000 more ; but fortune was still as unfavourable to him 
as ever. The expedition encountered a terrible storm, 
which disabled the fleet, and frustrated the expedition. 

This misfortune, with the bad success of the Spanish arms 
in Sicily and other parts of Europe, induced Philip to sign 
the quadruple alliance, and peace was once more restored to 
Europe. 

In 1721, the nation was thrown into a violent ferment, 
and a great shock was given to public credit, by a diabolical 
project, known by the name of the South Sea Scheme. It 
was planned by Sir John Blunt, a director of the South Sea 
Company, who possessed all the cunning, plausibility, and 
boldness requisite for such an undertaking. To explain this 
as succinctly as possible, it is to be observed, that ever since 
the Revolution under William, the government had been 
obliged to borrow money from different companies of mer- 
chants or others, the interest of which was secured by taxes 
on the people, and thus was entailed on the kingdom what 
is called the national debt. Among the rest of the creditors 
was the company which traded to the South Sea. This 
company and that of the Bank of England had offered pro- 
posals for reducing all these public funds or debts into one, 
and that of the South Sea was accepted, and an act passed 



238 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

the Parliament and received the royal assent. No sooner 
was the bill passed than the most scandalous arts were prac- 
tised to enhance the value of the shares and decoy the 
unwary. The stock gradually rose to the amazing sum of 
.£1,000 for each share of .£100, and the whole nation became 
infected with the avaricious spirit of stock-jobbing. All 
other employ was neglected, and the attention of the people 
wholly engrossed by this and other chimerical schemes, 
which now started up every day, under the countenance of 
many of the principal nobility. 

The infatuation prevailed from February till September, 
when the Stocks began to fall; the panic now commenced, 
and by the 29th they had sunk to 150, when several emi- 
nent goldsmiths and bankers stopped payment, and were 
obliged to abscond. An infinite number of families were 
thus ruined, and nothing was heard but grief, disappoint- 
ment, and despair. A committee was now appointed b}' the 
Commons to inquire into the affair, when the whole scheme 
of villany was discovered. Some of the directors and prin- 
cipal officers were taken into custody ; others were expelled 
the Commons, their estates confiscated towards making good 
the public damages, and such prudent regulations were 
made as the case w r ould admit of. 

The discontents occasioned by these public calamities 
once more gave the disaffected party hopes of success. But 
their connsels were weak, divided, and wavering. Francis 
Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, was the first person arrested. 
He had long been obnoxious to Government, and possessed 
abilities to render himself formidable to any party or minis- 
try which he opposed. His papers were seized, and he was 
committed to the Tower; soon after the Duke of Norfolk, 
the Earl of Orrery, Lords North and Grey, with some others 
of inferior rank, were imprisoned. Of all these, however, 
only the bishop, who was banished, and one M'Layer, who 
was hanged at Tyburn, felt the severity of Government, the 
proof against the rest amounting to no convictive evidence. 

It was now two years since the King had visited his elec- 
toral dominions of Hanover. Having appointed a regency, 
he embarked for Holland ; but on the road from thence he 
was suddenly seized with a paralytic disorder, which soon 
deprived him of his faculties. He was conveyed to Osna- 
burg, wmere he expired on the 11th of June, in the 68th 
year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign. 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 239 

Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Benedict XIII 17241 Benedict XIV 1740 

Clement XII 1738 | Clement XIII 1758 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

Charles VI 1711 I Francis 1745 

Charles VII 1740 I 

EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES OF RUSSIA. 

Peter II. . , 17271 John 1740 

Anne 1730 I Elizabeth 1741 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Achmet III 1703|Osman II 1754 

Mahomet V 1730|Mustapha III 1757 

KINO OF FRANCE. 

Louis XV. . 1715 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Philip V 1724 1 Charles III 1759 

Ferdinand VI 1745 I 

KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 

John V 1707 1 Joseph 1750 

KINGS OF DENMARK. 

Frederic IV 1 699 1 Frederic V 1746 

Christian VI 1730 1 

KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

Frederic 1720 1 Adolphus 1750 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederic II 1713 J Frederic III 1740 



1727. — George II. , reigned 33 Years, 4 Months. 

From the accession of George II. till the year 1739, 
England was not disturbed by any foreign war ; but for a 
considerable period the Spaniards in America had much dis- 
tressed and insulted the commerce of Great Britain in those 
parts. As a right of cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy, 
claimed by the British, gave them frequent opportunities of 
pushing in contraband commodities upon the continent, the 
Spaniards resolved to put a stop to the evil, by refusing lib- 
erty to cut logwood in that place. The Spanish guarda-costas 
exercised great severities in the execution of this determina- 
tion, and some of the English seamen were even sent as 
slaves to the mines of Potosi. Remonstrances were made to 
the Spanish minister ; the only answers to which were pro- 



240 ™ E HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

mises of inquiry, which produced no redress. The people 
became indignant, and called for war ; which was declared, 
and Admiral Vernon sent with a squadron of six ships against 
Portobello, which was destroyed with scarcely the loss of a 
man. Commodore Anson was next sent to distress th.e enemy 
in the South Sea ; but the mismanagement of the ministry 
frustrated the project. He, however, after encountering 
dreadful storms, which dispersed his fleet, took a rich galleon, 
worth £300,000, with other captures to nearly the same 
amount, with which he returned to England, after a three 
years' voyage. Another expedition, to which this was sub- 
ordinate, ended more unfortunatety. It consisted of twenty- 
nine ships of the line, with 15,000 seamen, and as many 
land forces ; but the ministers detained them without any 
visible cause till the season for action in America was almost 
over. At last they arrived before Carthagena, and soon 
became masters of the strong forts which commanded the 
harbour; but in the attack of the town by escalade, their 
guides were slain, and the forces, mistaking their way, attack- 
ed the strongest parts of the fortifications, where they were 
exposed to the whole fire of the place. The consequence 
was they were obliged to retreat, after sustaining, with great 
resolution, a destructive fire during more than two hours, leav- 
ing 600 dead on the spot. The climate now began to make 
more havoc than the enemy ; and, to add to the calamity, 
the naval and military commanders disagreed, blamed each 
other, and were at last obliged to reimbark the troops and 
withdraw as soon as possible. These miscarriages produced 
great discontents, and at last the storm burst upon Sir Robert 
Walpole, who, finding a majority formed against him in the 
Commons, resigned his office, and was created Earl of Orford. 
The new ministers, who had so loudly declared for the liberty 
of the people, had no sooner entered into office, than they 
adopted the very measures which they had formerly repro- 
bated. The nation had now become disgusted with naval 
expeditions, and wished for a renewal of their victories in 
Flanders, in which disposition the King ardently joined 
them ; an army, therefore, of 16,000 men was sent over, to 
take part in the quarrels that were then beginning on the 
Continent. 

To trace the origin of these quarrels, it is necessary to go 
back a few years. After the death of the Duke of Orleans, 
who had been regent of France, Cardinal Fleury undertook 
to settle the confusion in which that country was involved. 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 241 

Under him the nation repaired her losses, and improved her 
commerce. During the long interval of peace, which his 
counsels had procured for Europe, two powers, till then 
unregarded, began to attract the notice and jealousy of the 
neighbouring nations ; these were Russia and Prussia. The 
empire of Germany remained under the government of 
Charles VI., who had been placed upon the throne by the 
treaty of Utrecht. Sweden still languished from the destruc- 
tive projects of Charles XII. Denmark was inclined to peace ; 
and part of Italy remained subject to those princes who had 
been imposed upon it by the treaty. All these states con- 
tinued to enjoy profound peace till the death of Augustus, 
king of Poland, by which Europe was once more involved 
in a flame. 

The emperor, assisted by Russia, declared for the Elector 
of Saxony ; while, on the other hand, Fiance supported 
Stanislaus, who had already been nominated by Charles XII. 
of Sweden. The views of France were seconded by Spain 
and Sardinia, who both hoped to share in the spoils of Austria. 
A French army soon overran the empire, while the Spaniards 
were equally fortunate in the kingdom of Naples. The 
Emperor was soon obliged to sue for peace ; but the French, 
in consideration of receiving Lorraine and some other valua- 
ble territories, agreed to abandon the interests of Stanislaus, 
who was obliged to renounce his title to Poland. 

The Emperor Charles VI. dying October 1740, the French 
court seized this opportunity as favourable to their plans of 
ambition. Regardless of the pragmatic treaty, by which the 
late Emperor's dominions were guaranteed to his daughter, 
Maria Teresa, they caused the Elector of Bavaria to be 
crowned Emperor. Thus the Queen of Hungary was strip- 
ped of her inheritance ; and at the same time she lost the 
province of Silesia, by an irruption of the King of Prussia, 
while France, Saxony, and Bavaria attacked her other domin- 
ions. Britain alone was willing to succour her ; in which, 
however, she was subsequently joined by Holland, Russia, 
and Sardinia. A body of British forces were sent into the 
Netherlands, where they were joined by 16,000 Hanoverians, 
to make a diversion upon the dominions of France. These 
quickly retrieved the desperate affairs of the Queen of Hun- 
gary, and turned the scale of victory. The French were 
driven out of Bohemia; and her rival, the Elector of Bavaria, 
expelled from his dominions, retired to Frankfort, where, 
forsaken by his allies, he lived in obscurity. The British 

21 



S42 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

now advanced to join Prince Charles, the Queen's general; 
To prevent them, the French opposed an army of 60,000 
men. The British army were commanded by the Earl of 
Stair, who suffered his army to be surrounded and attacked 
by the French with great impetuosity. The enemy were, 
however, obliged to repass the Maine, with the lotfs of 5,000 
men. 

In Italy the French gained some advantages : but their 
chief hopes were in a projected invasion of England. The 
troops destined for this expedition were commanded by the 
famous Count Saxe : but the whole project was defeated by 
the appearance of Sir John Norris, who obliged the French 
fleet to put back ; and their transports being damaged in a 
gale of wind, the intended descent was entirely frustrated. 
The national joy was, however, in some measure damped by 
the conduct of Admirals Matthews and Lestock, who, 
through a misunderstanding between themselves, suffered a 
French fleet of thirty-four sail to escape. 

In the Netherlands, Count Saxe, with 120,000 men, 
overran the whole country, and laid siege to Tournay. To 
save this important place was fought the bloody battle of 
Fontenoi, in which the Dutch behaved very badly, and the 
allies under the Duke of Cumberland lost 12,000 men. The 
French lost nearly the same number. 

In 1745, the son of the Pretender resolved to make an 
effort to recover what he thought his ancient right. Fur- 
nished with a small sum of money from France, he landed 
on the coast of Lochabar with 2,000 men. Proceeding 
towafds Edinburgh, on the road to which his forces contin- 
ually increased, he entered the capital without opposition, 
but was unable to reduce the castle. Near Preston Pans he 
was attacked by Sir John Cope with the King's forces, whom 
he defeated with the loss of 500 men. This victory inspired 
his men with great confidence, and it was determined in a 
council of war to proceed towards England, which they 
entered, and advanced as far as Manchester, where they 
were joined by Colonel Townley, with about 200 English. 
The young Pretender marched on till within 100 miles of 
London, and the capital began to be in great alarm. Had 
he continued boldly to march on with the same expedition, 
he might perhaps have made himself master of it ; but the 
Highland chiefs, who were under no subordination, would 
proceed no further, and Charles was obliged to retreat. This 
he effected without loss, and laid siege to Sterling Castle. 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 5543 

General Hawley, who commanded a body of troops near 
Edinburgh, undertook to raise the siege: but was completely 
defeated, with the loss of all his baggage. This was Charles's 
last triumph : the Duke of Cumberland overtook him at 
Culloden : an engagement ensued, in which the rebels were 
defeated with great slaughter, and a final period put to the 
hopes of the Pretender. The conquerors behaved with great 
cruelty, refusing quarter to the wounded, and spreading 
desolation wherever they went. Charles, notwithstanding 
the great rewards offered to apprehend him, arrived safely in 
France, after a variety of surprising adventures and escapes. 

Soon after this battle the Duke of Cumberland returned 
to Flanders, to resume the command of the army, where 
the French carried all before them ; though their victories 
were counterbalanced by their ill success in Italy, and very 
considerable defeats at sea. 

At length, all parties being weary of the war, a congress 
was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, where a treaty of peace was 
concluded. 

In 1751 died Frederic Prince of Wales, the father of his 
late Majesty George III. He was much regretted by the 
nation ; his affability had made him popular, and those who 
opposed administration, had grounded all their hopes of 
redress upon his accession to the throne. In 1749, a plan 
had been formed to encourage those who had been dis- 
charged from the army and navy to settle in Nova Scotia. 
This cold and barren spot was the cause of the renewal of 
hostilities between the French and English, which soon 
spread devastation over every part of the globe. Negotia- 
tions, mutual accusations, and, at last, hostilities, took place. 
Four operations were undertaken at once by the English in 
America. Colonel Monkton had orders to drive the French 
from their encroachments upon Nova Scotia; General John- 
son was sent against Crown Point ; General Shirley against 
Niagara; and General Braddock against Fort du Quesne. 
In these expeditions Monkton was successful; Johnson was 
also victorious; Shirley lost the season of operation, and 
Braddockwas defeated and killed. But at sea the British 
were so successful, that the French navy was unable to 
recover itself during the continuance of the war. 

The French now threatened, as usual, an invasion : which, 
however, never took place: but they landed a numerous 
body of (roops at Minorca, and invested the citadel of St. 
Philip, reckoned the strongest in Europe ; but at this tim$ 



244 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

the garrison had been neglected, and was no ways prepared 
for a vigorous defence. 

To raise the siege, Admiral Byng was dispatched with a 
squadron of ten men of war, with orders to relieve Minorca, 
or at any rate to throw in a body of troops. This last under- 
taking he deemed too hazardous. A French fleet soon after 
appeared nearly equal to his own : but Byng was resolved to 
act only upon the defensive. The French advanced : a 
slight engagement ensued, when ihey slowly sailed away, 
and no other opportunity occurred afterwards to bring them 
to action. It was then resolved, in a council of war, to sail 
to Gibraltar, in order to refit, as the relief of Minorca was 
deemed impracticable. 

Nothing could exceed the resentment of the nation at this 
conduct. Byng was brought home under arrest ; tried, and 
sentenced to be shot ; which sentence he suffered with great 
resolution, protesting his innocence as to any treasonable 
intent. It is thought by some that the ministry secretly 
encouraged the resentment of the nation, in order to screen 
themselves ; be this as it may, the severity of this execution 
certainly produced very beneficial effects to the nation soon 
after. 

The ministry had entered into a treaty with Russia, by 
which 50,000 Russians were to act in the British service, in 
case Hanover should be invaded by the French ; but as the 
King of Prussia declared that he would suffer no foreign 
troops to enter the empire, the ministers were obliged to drop 
their Russian connexion, and conclude a treaty with Prus- 
sia. From this alliance a new combination quite opposite to 
the former took place. Britain opposed France in America, 
Asia, and on the ocean ; France attacked Hanover, which 
the King of Prussia undertook to defend ; Austria had its 
views on Prussia, and was seconded by Saxony, France, 
Sweden, and Russia; which latter power had long had a 
wish for some settlement in the west of Europe. 

In the east, Clive was very successful ; he drove the 
enemy from the province of Arcot, took the French general 
prisoner, and reinstated the Nabob in his dominions. 

Surajah Dowlah, Nabob of Bengal, and the most powerful 
prince in that country, was, by the intrigues of the French, 
induced to declare war against the English ; and levying an 
immense army, laid siege to Calcutta, one of the chief forts 
in that part of the world belonging to the British, but which 
was not in a state of defence sufficient to withstand aa 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 245 

attack. The fort was taken, and the garrison, of 146 men, 
were seized and thrust into a prison called the Black Hole : 
where, from the closeness of the dungeon, and the intense 
heat of the climate, these poor wretches, after enduring the 
most excruciating torments from thirst and suffocation, died, 
to the number of 123, so that only twenty-three survived 
the next day, and they in a high state of putrid fever. Cal- 
cutta was speedily retaken by Clive ; the victory of Plassey 
followed, and the inhuman Surajah Dowlah was defeated, 
deposed, and put to death. 

The conquests of the British in the Western world were 
even more splendid than those in the East ; which may be 
chiefly ascribed to the vigorous administration of Pitt, who 
about this time came into power. An expedition was set on- 
foot against Cape Breton, under General Amherst and Admi- 
ral Boscawen ; another under General Abercrombie, against 
Crown Point and Ticonderago ; and a third under Brigadier 
Forbes, against Fort du Quesne. The Fortress of Louis- 
burgh, which defended the island of Cape Breton, was very 
strong, both by nature and art : the garrison was numerous, 
the commander vigilant : but the activity of the British sur- 
mounted every obstacle ; the place surrendered, and its forts 
were demolished. The expedition against Fort du Quesne 
was equally successful ; but that against Crown Point mis- 
carried. In 1759 it was resolved to attack the French in 
several parts of their empire at once. General Amherst with 
12,000 men was ordered to attack Crown Point once more', 
General Wolfe was to undertake the siege of Quebec, while 
General Prideaux and Sir William Johnson were to attempt 
a French fort near the Cataracts of Niagara. This was the 
first that succeeded ; a body of French troops that attempted 
to relieve the fort were defeated, and the garrison surrendered 
prisoners of war. Crown Point was, upon the arrival of 
Amherst, deserted and destroyed. There remained but one 
decisive blow to reduce all North America under the British 
dominion, and this was the taking of Quebec ; which, when 
we consider its situation on the side of the great river St. 
Lawrence, the fortifications with which it is secured, the 
natural strength of the country, the great number of vessels 
and floating batteries which the enemy had provided for the 
defence of the river, or the numerous body of savages hov- 
ering round the English army, offered a combination of 
difficulties which might perplex and discourage the most 
resolute commander. The general himself was fully aware 

21* 



SMfl THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

of the difficulty of the undertaking. After stating, in a 
letter to the ministry, the dangers that presented themselves, 
lie adds : " I know that the affairs of Great Britain require 
the most vigorous measures ; but then the courage of a hand- 
ful of brave men should be exerted only where there is 
some hope of a favourable issue." The only prospect of 
attempting the place with success was by landing a body of 
troops hy night below the town, and possessing themselves 
of the ground at the back of the city. This attempt, how- 
ever, appeared peculiarly discouraging. The stream was 
rapid, the shore shelving, the bank above lined with centi- 
nels : the landing-place so narrow as to be easily missed in 
the dark ; and the steepness of the ground such as hardly to 
be surmounted even in the day-time. All these difficulties 
were, however, overcome by the conduct of the general and 
the bravery of the men. The precipices were ascended, 
and the enemy that defended the narrow pass was dislodged. 
Montcalm, the French commander, being informed that the 
English had gained the heights, hitherto deemed inaccessi- 
ble, resolved to hazard a battle. The onset was made with 
great fury : the French general was killed early in the action, 
and the second in command shared his fate. General Wolfe, 
who stood in front of the lines in the hottest part of the 
engagement, had been aimed at by the enemy's marksmen, 
and received a shot in his wrist ; but wrapping his handker- 
chief round his hand, he continued giving his orders without 
the least emotion, and advanced at the head of his grenadiers 
with their bayonets fixed : but a second ball more fatal 
pierced his breast, so that, unable to proceed, he leaned on 
the shoulder of a soldier that was next him. Struggling in 
the agonies of death, and just expiring, he heard a voice 
cry, " They run !" Upon which he seemed for a moment to 
revive, and asked who ran ; " The French !" was the answer : 
when, expressing his wonder that they ran so soon, he sunk 
on the soldier's breast, and .his last words were, " I die 
happy." The surrender of Quebec was the consequence 
of this victory; the whole of Canada soon followed, and has 
continued in the possession of the English ever since. The 
island of Gaudaloupe was reduced about the same time by 
Commodore More and General Hopson. 

In Germany, affairs at the commencement of the war 
wore an unfavourable aspect. The Hanoverians, commanded 
by the Duke of Cumberland, were greatly outnumbered by 
the French, who at last compelled him to sign the capitula- 



The house of Brunswick. £47 

tion of Clostcr-seven, by which all the army stipulated to 
lay down their arms and" disperse, and Hanover was obliged 
to submit quietly to the enemy. But their oppressions were 
so great, that the army rose to vindicate the freedom of their 
country, and Ferdinand, Prince of Brunswick, put himself 
at their head. As soon as this was known in England, large 
supplies were granted to the King of Prussia ; and the Hano- 
verians, with a small body of British troops under the Duke 
of Marlborough, joined Prince Ferdinand. After some 
inconsiderable success the Duke died, and the command of 
the British forces devolved on Lord George Sackville ; but 
a misunderstanding arose between him and Prince Ferdi- 
nand, the unfortunate consequences of which appeared at 
the battle of Minden, fought shortly after. Lord George 
pretended that he did not understand the orders of the 
Prince, which were contradictory, and of consequence could 
not obey them. The allies, however, gained the victory, 
which, but for the British General, would have been a deci- 
sive one. Lord George was soon after recalled, tried by a 
court-martial, and declared incapable of serving in any 
military command. The British were now reinforced by a 
body of 30,000 men, and sanguine hopes of conquest were 
expected. These hopes, however, were not realized: the 
allies were defeated at Corbach ; and although they retrieved 
their honour at Exdorf, and gained a victory at Warburg and 
Ziernberg, they were again beaten at Campen, after which 
both sides retired to winter quarters. 

The efforts of England in every part of the globe at this 
time w r ere amazing, and the expense of her operations 
greater than had ever been disbursed by any nation before. 
The King of Prussia received a subsidy ; a large body of 
English forces commanded the extensive peninsula in India, 
while an army of c 20,000 men secured the conquests in 
North America ; 30,000 were employed in Germany, and 
several bodies distributed in numerous garrisons, in various 
parts of the world. But all this was nothing to the force 
maintained at sea, which commanded wherever it went, and 
had totally annihilated the French power on that element. 
The courage and conduct of the English admirals surpassed 
whatever had been achieved in history ; neither superior 
force, nor the terrors of the tempest, could intimidate them. 
Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French 
fleet off the coast of Bretagne, in Quiberon Bay, in the 



£48 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

midst of a violent storm, during the darkness of the night, 
and, what a seaman fears more, upon a rocky shore. 

On the 25th of October 1760, died George II. He had 
risen at his usual hour, and observed to his attendants, that 
as the weather was fine, he would take a walk in the gardens 
of Kensington Palace, where he then resided. In a few 
minutes after his return he was heard to fall upon the floor. 
His attendants ran to his assistance, and lifted him into bed, 
when he desired, with a faint voice, that the Princess Amelia 
might be sent for ; but before she could reach his apartment 
he expired, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and the 
thirty-third of his reign. 



Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Clement XIII 1758 I Pius VI 1775 

Clement XIV 1769 I Pius VII 180O 

BMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



Francis 1745 

Joseph II 1765 

Leopold 1790 

EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES OF RUSSIA. 



Francis II., who assumed the 
title of Emperor of Austria 1792 



Paul 1 1797 

Alexander 1S01 



Elizabeth 1741 

Peter III 1762 

Catharine II 1763 

EMPERORS OF THE TURKS. 

Mustaphalll 1757|Selim III 1789 

Achmet IV 1774lMahmoud II 1808 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Louis XV 1715 I Napoleon 1799 

Louis XVI 1774 Louis XVIII 1814 

Republic 1792 1 

KINGS OF SPAIN. 

Charles III 17591 Ferdinand VII 1808 

Charles IV 1788 1 

KINGS AND Q.UEEN OF PORTUGAL. 

Joseph V 17501 John VI 1820 

Maria 1777 I 

KINGS OF DENMARK. 

Frederick V 1746 I Frederic VI 1808 

Christian VII 1756 I 

KINGS OF SWEDEN. 

Gustavus III 1771 (Charles XIII 1809 

Gustavus IV 1792 1 Charles XIV 1818 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 249 

KIXG OF POLAND. 

Stanislaus Augustus 1786 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederic II 1740 1 Frederic IV 1797 

Frederic III 17861 



J7G0. — George III., reigned 59 Years, 3 Months. 

George III. succeeded his grandfather George II., and 
immediately assembled a Parliament. In his speech he 
spoke with much enthusiasm of his having been born and 
educated a Briton, and of his determination to prosecute the 
war with vigour. By this time, however, the people were 
weary of conquests, esp3cially with those in Germany, wdiich, 
without any solid advantage, was a great expense to the 
nation. In 1761, proposals of peace were made between 
the belligerent powers ; but the French only wished to gain 
time ; and Mr. Pitt, who had conducted the war with ability, 
and a spirit never excelled, if equalled, had, with his usual 
sagacity, dived into the designs of the enemy, and discovered 
a private treaty which had been entered into between France 
and Spain, called the family compact : he therefore proposed 
in council an immediate declaration of war against Spain. 
Foiled in his views, he declared he could no longer be of 
use in the cabinet, and the next day resigned his employ of 
Secretary of State, and was created Earl of Chatham. The 
new administration were soon, however, obliged to adopt 
the suggestion of Mr. Pitt, and war was declared against 
Spain ; but the opportunity of striking a sudden blow was 
lost. 

As Portugal had long been in alliance with Great Britain, 
the French and Spaniards sent the most haughty memorials, 
commanding Joseph, the Portuguese monarch, to accede to 
the confederacy. Joseph rejected their proposals, and con- 
cluded his answer by nobly declaring, that "it would affect 
him less to let the last tile of his palace fall, and to see his 
faithful subjects spill the last drop of their blood, than to 
sacrifice, together with the honour of his crown, all that 
Portugal held most dear, and to submit by such extraordinary 
means to become an unheard-of example to all pacific powers, 
who would no longer be able to enjoy the benefit of neutral- 
ity whenever a war should be kindled between powers, with 



250 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

which the former were connected by defensive treaties." 
The Spaniards immediately prepared to invade Portugal, and 
with three different armies attempted to penetrate to Lisbon. 
Their first body proceeded as far as the Douro, but was there 
stopped by the peasantry, headed by some English officers, 
who seized a difficult pass, and drove the enemy back to 
Monte Corvo. The second and third were equally un- 
successful, and were obliged to fall back to the frontiers of 
Spain. 

No less propitious were the British arms in the East and 
West Indies. From the French were taken the islands of 
Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Granada : from the 
Spaniards the strong fortress of the Havannah, in the isle of 
Cuba. Nine of the enemy's ships of war were captured, 
with four frigates ; three of their capital vessels were sunk in 
the harbour, and two on the stocks destroyed. In money and 
valuable merchandise the plunder amounted to £3,000,000. 
To this may be added the capture of the Spanish register 
ship, in value a million sterling. In the East-Indies, Manilla 
was taken, and with it fourteen considerable islands fell into 
our hands, besides a rich galleon worth upwards of £500,000. 
By the acquisition of Manilla, joined to our former successes, 
we secured all the avenues of the Spanish trade, and inter- 
rupted all communication between the ports of their vast, 
but disjointed empire. The conquest of the Havannah had 
cut off, in a great measure, the intercourse of their wealthy 
continental colonies with Europe : the reduction of the Phil- 
ippines excluded them from Asia; and the plunder taken 
was more than sufficient to indemnify the charges of the 
expedition : a circumstance not very common in modern 
wars. 

All this time the war in Germany had continued with una- 
bated violence. The allies, under Prince Ferdinand, had 
given the highest proofs of valour, but no decisive advantage 
had been obtained. It was, however, no longer the interest 
of Britain to continue the contest. There had indeed seldom 
been a period so glorious to this island. In the course of 
the war an immense tract of land had been conquered. The 
American territory approached the borders of Asia, and came 
near the frontiers of the Russian and Chinese dominions. 
She had conquered twenty-five islands, all distinguishable 
for their riches and magnitude, or the importance of their 
situation. By sea and land she had gained twelve battles, 
reduced nine fortified cities, and nearly forty castles and 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 25l 

forts ; had taken or destroyed a hundred ships of war, and 
acquired at least ten millions of plunder. After such unex- 
ampled and widely extended conquests, the French and 
Spaniards became sincerely desirous of the termination of a 
war so unpropitious to them ; and peace was at length con- 
cluded at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Great Britain, by this treaty, 
received Florida in exchange for the Havannah; she retain- 
ed Canada, Cape Breton, Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, 
the Grenadas, and Senegal, on the coast of Africa, but re- 
stored all her other conquests. A peace was soon after con- 
cluded between the Empress Queen of Hungary and his 
Prussian Majesty; and thus the general tranquillity of Eu- 
rope was happily re-established. At the conclusion of this 
war the national debt amounted to about one hundred and 
forty-eight millions. 

The most momentous event to this country during the 
year 1765, was the passing of the American Stamp Act. 
This first kindled the sparks of that conflagration, which 
afterwards involved a great part of Europe, as well as 
America, in its destructive spread ; and, although a remote, 
was certainly a principal cause of the French Revolution. 

As this war is a most important event in the annals of 
Great Britain, no circumstance, however trivial, that serves 
to mark the progress of the growing animosity between the 
mother country and her colonies, ought to be passed over in 
silence. For this reason we shall observe, that an Act of 
Parliament had been lately made, enjoining the colonies to 
furnish his Majesty's troops with necessaries in their quarters. 
This act the colony of New York refused to obey ; and ano- 
ther act was therefore passed, restraining the assembly of 
that province from making any laws until they had complied 
with the former. At this the Americans expressed their 
indignation, and passed several resolutions against the im- 
portation of European, by which they no doubt meant British, 
commodities. Nor were the people in England much better 
satisfied with the posture of affairs. The vast sums owing 
to British, merchants by the Americans amounted to several 
millions. Their refusal to pay these until the obnoxious laws 
should be repealed, greatly distressed the trading part of 
the country. Administration was therefore under the ne- 
cessity of either immediately enforcing the stamp act by the 
sword, or of procuring its instant repeal. Pacific measures 
prevailed ; the act was repealed ; but at the same time 
another was made, declaring the right of Parliament not 



252 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

only to tax the colonies, but to bind them in all cases what- 
soever. 

The repeal of the stamp act occasioned universal joy, both 
in England and America; though, as the opposite party 
denied the right of Parliament to tax them, matters were 
still as far from any real accommodation as ever. This dis- 
content of the Americans was soon after augmented by the 
duties laid on tea, glass, &c. imported into their country. 
The French and Spaniards, taking advantage of these dis- 
sensions, shewed an inclination to come to a rupture, and 
were believed secretly to have fomented the spirit of resist- 
ance which now spread through the colonies. 

The great subject of dispute between the mother country 
and her American colonies was the right of taxation. The 
colonies resisted this right, and seemed determined to en- 
counter every danger, rather than submit to any taxes im- 
posed without their own consent. In order to try their temper, 
and see whether they would put their threats into execution, 
some tea was sent out to America with the new duties an- 
nexed. This was not even permitted to be landed, but sent 
back to England with the utmost contempt and indignation. 
At Boston it met with a still worse reception ; it was taken 
out of the ships by the populace, and thrown into the sea. 
To punish the New Englanders for this violence, two bills 
were passed : one for shutting up the port of Boston ; and the 
other for taking the executive power out of the hands of the 
people, and vesting it in the crown. 

These acts of severity were levelled in appearance only 
at the town of Boston ; but most of the colonies took the 
alarm. They thought they saw in the fall of that town, the 
punishment that might soon be inflicted on themselves ; they, 
therefore, resolved to make common cause with them, and 
accordingly all the colonies, Nova-Scotia and Georgia except- 
ed, sent delegates to a General Assembly, which met at Phila- 
delphia, and assuming the name of Congress, presented a bold 
and spirited address to his Majesty for a redress of grievances. 
Georgia, the following year, acceded to the union, and thus 
completed the number of the thirteen provinces which soon 
after separated from the mother country, and ultimately ren- 
dered themselves sovereign and independent states. The 
fire, which had long been gaining ground, now broke out 
into an open flame. General Gage, governor of Massachu- 
setts Bay, hearing that the provinces had collected a quan- 
tity of military stores at a place called Concord, sent out a 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 253 

detachment to destroy them. This detachment met a com- 
pany of militia at Lexington. The English commander order- 
ed them to disperse. The provincials did not obey; and the 
soldiers opened a general fire upon them : eight of the militia- 
men were killed, several wounded, and the stores were then 
destroyed without further interruption ; but on their return 
they were suddenly attacked by a very superior number of 
the provincials, and though they made good their retreat to 
Boston, they lost upwards of 200 men in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners. 

The news of this engagement was no sooner carried to the 
different parts of the country, than the whole province was at 
once in arms, and Boston was invested by a body of militia 
amounting to 20,000 men. The Congress also passed a resolu- 
tion, declaring that the compact between the crown and Mas- 
sachusetts Bay was dissolved ; and the more effectually to mark 
their contempt for the, British Government, they erected a 
post-office, at the head of which they placed Dr. Franklin, 
who had been disgracefully removed from that situation in 
England ; and upon General Gage's publishing a proclama- 
tion, offering a pardon to all who should lay down their arms 
and return to their duty, excepting Messrs. Hancock and 
Adams, they immediately chose Mr. Hancock president of 
the Congress. In the mean time some skirmishes happened 
in the islands lying off Boston, in which the Americans had 
generally the advantage ; but nothing decisive took place till 
the 17th of June 1775, when the battle of Breed's Hill was 
fought. Breed's Hill is an eminence situated in the neighbour- 
hood of Boston, upon a narrow neck of land. Upon this hill 
the provincials threw up, in one of the short nights of that 
season, a strong redoubt, considerable intrench ments and a 
breastwork almost cannon- proof. In order to dislodge them 
from this post, which might have given much annoyance, a 
detachment of 3,000 men was sent out, under the com- 
mand of Generals Howe and Pigot. The attack began with 
a heavy cannonade, which, owing to the breastwork thrown 
up, did not much execution, and was borne by the provin- 
cials with the steadiness of veteran troops ; they did not 
return a shot till the King's forces had advanced almost to 
the works, when they began, and kept up for some time 
such a dreadful and continued fire, that many of our bravest 
men and officers were killed, and the rest thrown into con- 
fusion. The troops, however, instantly rallied, and returning 
to the charge with fixed bayonet and irresistible fury, forced 

22 



254 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

the works in every quarter, and compelled the provincials to 
abandon the post and retire to the continent. This, however, 
was a dear-bought advantage ; almost half the detachment 
were killed or wounded, and the number of officers who fell, 
compared to that of the private men, was greatly beyond the 
usual proportion ; this was owing to the training by the Ameri- 
cans of a certain description of soldiers called riflemen, who 
had guns of a peculiar make, and excelled all others in taking 
a sure and steady aim. 

The spirit displayed by the New Englanders on this occa- 
sion, encouraged the Congress to proceed with greater alacrity 
in their military preparations. They had some time before 
given orders for raising and paying an army, and they now 
published a declaration of the motives that compelled them 
to take up arms, and their determined resolution not to lay 
them down till all their grievances were redressed. They 
likewise appointed Mr. Washington, one of the delegates 
for Virginia, to be commander-in-chief of all the American 
forces. 

But to show that they had formed no design of separating 
themselves from the mother country, the}' - presented an 
address to the inhabitants of Great Britian, another to the peo- 
ple of Ireland, and a petition to the King, in which they dis- 
claimed all thoughts of independence, and declared that they 
wished for nothing more than a reconciliation on just and 
reasonable terms ; and, in the opinion of many, such terms 
might have been granted them at this time as would have at 
once gratified their ambition, without hurting the honour or 
the interest of Great Britain. But the fact is, that during 
the whole of this unhappy quarrel, our ministers seemed to 
entertain too mean an opinion of the spirit or resources of 
the Americans. Indeed, so strong was the delusion, that 
when Mr. Penn, who had brought over the last petition from 
the Americans, was examined by the House of Lords, and 
declared that if the petition were rejected, his countrymen 
would in all probability enter into alliances with foreign 
powers, no regard was paid to his information; and as to the 
petition, he was told by the ministry that no answer would 
be returned to it. It is easy to imagine what an impression 
such a mode of treatment must have upon the minds of the 
Americans, elated with the fame they had acquired in the 
battle of Bunker's Hill. Not satisfied with acting merely 
on the defensive, they now determined to make an effort to 
reduce Quebec, before the fleets and armies, which they were 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 255 

well assured would sail from England, should arrive; the 
attempt had already been facilitated by the taking of Crown 
Point and Ticonderoga by surprise, which gave them an en- 
trance into Canada; and they now dispatched 3,000 men, 
under Generals Montgomery and Schuyler, to attack that 
province. 

They were opposed by General Carleton, a man of great 
experience and activity, who, with a very few troops, had 
been able to keep the disaffected in awe, and had now aug- 
mented his army by a considerable body of Indians. 

The provincials were at first successful ; they reduced the 
forts of Chambly and St. John ; they captured the whole of 
the British shipping between Montreal and Quebec, and 
took the town of Montreal itself. No further obstacles 
remained in the way of the Americans towards the capital 
than what arose from the nature of the country, and these 
indeed were considerable. Nothing, however, could damp 
their ardour : notwithstanding it was the month of Novem- 
ber, Colonel Arnold formed the design of penetrating through 
the woods, morasses, and the most frightful solitudes, from 
New' England to Canada, by a nearer way than that which 
Montgomery had chosen : and this he accomplished, to the 
astonishment of all who saw or heard of the attempt. The 
consternation, however, into which the town of Quebec was 
thrown, proved rather detrimental to the Americans than 
otherwise, as it redoubled the vigilance, and united all par- 
ties, who before were contending violently against each 
other. Without artillery, and in want of provisions, Arnold 
was obliged to content himself with merely blockading the 
place. The arrival of Montgomery did not much mend his 
situation : their united forces were too insignificant to attempt 
the reduction of a place so strongly fortified. No other 
resource was left but an attempt to take it by surprise. This 
was resorted to : but Montgomery was killed, Arnold had 
his leg shattered, and the enterprise was abandoned, after 
an immense slaughter of their troops ; so that, after the 
engagement, no more than 810 effective men could be mus- 
tered. Arnold did not, however, immediately abandon the 
province ; he removed about three miles from the city, and. 
finding the Indians fricndty, he was enabled to endure all 
the hardships of a winter campaign in that most severe cli- 
mate ; but upon the arrival of a body of troops from Eng- 
land, he was finally obliged to evacuate the province. 

In ti:e mean time, the armv at Boston was reduced to a 



256 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

miserable condition. General Howe, who had succeeded 
General Gage in the command, though an officer of great 
spirit, fruitful in expedients and known military skill, found 
himself totally unequal to the difficulties of his situation. 
He was effectually cut off from all communication with the 
continent of America, whence he could not expect the least 
supply of provisions. The store-ships from England arrived 
slowly, and some of them were captured by the enemy : so 
that the army, as well as the inhabitants of Boston, were in 
danger of polishing by famine. To add to their distress, the 
Americans had erected strong batteries upon the adjacent 
hills, whence, in the spring, they began to play upon the 
town with incredible fury. For fourteen days this terrible 
attack continued, without intermission ; so that, finding the 
place no longer tenable, the army was obliged to evacuate it. 
taking with them such of the inhabitants as chose to follow 
their fortunes. 

From Boston they sailed to Halifax, leaving behind them 
immense stores of ammunition, cannon, &c, together with 
a great quantity of woollen and linen goods, of which the 
Americans stood much in need. General Washington imme- 
diately took possession of the town, which he fortified in 
such a manner as to render it almost impregnable. 

An expedition undertaken against Charleston, about the 
same time, shewed the ministry to be as little acquainted 
with the creeks and harbours on the American coast, as they 
soon after appeared to be with the interior geography of the 
country. The fleet for this enterprise was commanded by 
Sir Peter Parker, and the land forces by Generals Clinton and 
Cornwallis. The troops were disembarked upon a place 
called Long Island, separated from another, called Sullivan's 
Island, only by a strait, which was said to be no more than 
eighteen inches deep at low water. Upon this vague report 
the expedition was planned, and the result was such as 
might have been expected. The enemy had erected some 
strong batteries upon Sullivan's Island, in order to obstruct 
the passage of ships to the town. This post the admiral 
attacked with great gallantry ; but when the troops attempted 
to pass from one island to the other, they found the strait. 
instead of eighteen inches, not less than seven feet deep. 
The consequence was, that after losing some of his bravest 
men, and even a ship of war, which he was obliged to burn 
in order to prevent her falling into the enemy's hands, the 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 25T 

admiral was obliged to give up the enterprise as altogether, 
impracticable. 

The Americans now began to think that matters had been, 
carried too far between them and the mother country, ever 
to admit of any sincere or lasting reconciliation. They 
likewise reflected, that while they continued to acknowledge 
themselves subjects of the British empire, they were natu- 
rally regarded by the rest of the world as rebels fighting 
against their lawful sovereign. They therefore published, 
on the 4th of July 1776, their famous Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, by which they disclaimed all allegiance to the 
crown of Great Britain, and erected themselves into free and 
sovereign States-. 

General Howe did not long remain inactive at Halifax. 
Setting sail for New York, and being there joined by his 
brother, Lord Howe, with a large fleet, and considerable- 
reinforcements, he drove the Americans, first from Long- 
Island, then from the city of New York, and compelled 
them to abandon King's Bridge, at the extremity of New 
York Island, where they had thrown up very strong works.. 
Not being able, however, to force Washington to a general 
engagement, he returned to New York, where he established 
his head-quarters. 

Various other successes attended the British arms. The 
American flotilla, on Lake Champlain, was nearly destroyed 
by General Carleton, and Sir Henry Clinton made himself 
master of Rhode Island without the loss of a man. This 
conquest was of great importance, as it obliged the Ameri- 
can fleet to sail as far as possible up the Providence River, 
and thus remain entirely useless. The- same ill success 
attended the Americans in other parts : General Burgoyne 
succeeded, after incredible exertions, in constructing a fleet, 
with which he pursued General Arnold, who, after his 
expulsion from Canada, had crossed Lake Champlain, and 
taken up his quarters at Crown Point. Here he was attacked 
by the British, defeated, and obliged to burn his ships, a 
few only escaping to Lake George. 

The affairs of the Americans seemed now every where to= 
decline, and those who had been the most sanguine in t'ne 
cause began to waver. The time, also, for which the soldiers 
had enlisted was expired, and the misfortunes of the preced- 
ing campaign had so discouraged them, that few were willing 
to engage during the continuance of a war, the event of which 
seemed so doubtful. An exploit, however, of General Wash- 

22* 



258 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

ington, at this time, raised the drooping spirits of the Ameri- 
cans. Perceiving the imminent danger to which Philadelphia 
was exposed, he resolved to make some attempts upon the Hes- 
sians, who lay nearest the city ; and for that purpose, on the 
night of the 24th December, he silently crossed the Delaware, 
and attacking the Hessians, who had not perceived his 
approach, killed their colonel, seized their artillery, and took 
1,000 prisoners. Emboldened by his success, he made an 
attempt on a division of the British forces, consisting of three 
regiments, under Colonel Mawhood. These troops were 
surprised on their march ; but although they were separately 
surrounded by a force vastly superior, they charged the 
enemy so resolutely with their bayonets, that they effected 
their retreat with the loss of 300 taken prisoners. 

France and Spain had hitherto professed to observe a strict 
neutrality, with regard to great Britain and her American 
colonies. A step which they now took, w r as sufficient to 
render their sincerity suspected. They opened their ports 
to the American privateers, and suffered them publicly to 
dispose of the prizes they had taken from the British mer- 
chants. They likewise privately supplied the Americans 
w r ith artillery and military stores ; and such numbers of French 
officers and engineers went over to the Americans, as added 
greatly to the skill and strength of their armies. At the 
same time both these powers continued to increase their 
marine with such unceasing activity, that it w r as plainly fore- 
seen by every thinking person that they would soon throw r 
off the mask, and openly declare in favour of the Americans. 
But the ministry treated these ideas as the visionary conceits 
of wrong-headed politicians. 

In the month of June 1777, General Howe opened the 
campaign with an attempt to bring General Washington to a 
general engagement in the northern colonies : but finding 
that impossible, he resolved to make an attempt on the south- 
ern ones. He accordingly embarked his army on board 200 
transports, and set sail for Philadelphia; but when he arrived 
at the mouth of the Delaware, he found it so filled with 
chevaux-de-frize as rendered it absolutely impassable. He 
therefore landed his troops at Elk ferry, and at Brandywine 
river found himself opposed by General Washington, who, 
contrary to his usual caution, resolved to hazard a battle for 
the protection cf Philadelphia. The conflict was obstinately 
contested through the whole of the day, but the Americans 
were at last obliged to yield to the superior discipline of the 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 259 

English troops, who entered Philadelphia immediately 
after. 

General Burgoyne, on his side, opened the campaign with 
about 10,000 men, by the siege of Ticonderoga. The place 
was strong, and garrisoned by 3,000 men. They had, how- 
ever, omitted to fortify a rugged eminence called Sugar-hill, 
which effectually commanded the works, vainly imagining 
that the difficulty of the ascent would deter the British from 
attempting it. A road was, however, soon made to its very 
top, which so much disheartened the Americans, that they 
abandoned the fort entirely, and in their retreat lost 200 boats, 
130 pieces of cannon, with all their provisions and baggage. 
After experiencing various losses in their retreat, they arriv- 
ed at Saratoga, where they were strongly reinforced by troops 
from all quarters, and a considerable train of artillery under 
General Arnold. Congress directed General Gates to take 
the command. Here ended the success of the British. The 
roads, which had been made with incredible labour, were 
destroyed by the rains and the enemy, so that the army began 
to be greatly distressed for want of provisions, which caused 
the desertion of the Indian auxiliaries in great bodies. Sur- 
rounded by superior numbers, without being able to conve}' 
any intelligence of their situation, or send out their foraging 
parties, they were attacked by the Americans, and after two 
desperate engagements, were obliged to submit to a capitula- 
tion, by which it was agreed that they should be allowed to 
embark for Great Britain, upon condition of not serving again 
in America during the war. 

The news of this defeat, whilst it filled England with shame 
and despair, was the signal for France to throw off the mask 
and openly declare in favour of the Americans, whom they 
acknowledged as sovereign and independent states. As this 
amounted to a declaration of hostilities, both parties prepared 
for war. On the 27th of July, the fleets of the two powers 
came in sight of each other, when a running fight commenced, 
the English commanded by Keppel and Palliser, the French 
by D'Orvillers. The two English admirals unfortunately 
disagreed : Keppel was accused of not having done his duty, 
Palliser for disobedience of orders as second in command : 
Keppel was honourably acquitted, Palliser partly condemned. 

A bold adventurer, of the name of Paul Jones, this year 
kept the western coast of the island in constant alarm. He 
landed at Whitehaven, where he burnt a ship in the harbour, 
and even attempted to set fire to the town. He afterwards 



260 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

landed in Scotland, and plundered the house of the Earl of 
Selkirk. He fought a bloody battle with Captain Pearson, 
of the Serapis, whom he compelled to strike. His own ship 
was so shattered in the engagement, that he had no sooner 
quitted her in order to take possession of his prize, than she 
went to the bottom. Captain Farmer, of the Quebec, fought 
a no less desperate battle with a French ship of very superior 
force, till his ship accidentally taking fire, he was blown into 
the air with most of his crew. 

The chief scene of action between the English and French 
was the West-Indies, where we reduced St. Lucia, but lost 
St. Vincent, Dominica, and Granada. In America, the war 
languished ; and except the reduction of Georgia by Commo- 
dore Parker and Colonel Campbell, and an attempt to recover 
it by the French Admiral D'Estaing, and the American 
General Lincoln, in which they were bravely repulsed by 
Major General Prevost, nothing of importance occurred this 
year. 

As the united arms of America were upon the whole un- 
successful, the independence of the Americans still seemed 
precarious ; but their courage was once more renewed by 
the accession of Spain to the confederacy, in September 
1779. 

The difficulties and danger to which England was now 
reduced, were undoubtedly great ; but the spirit and magna- 
nimity displayed on this occasion did the highest honour to 
the nation, and fully justified the opinion generally entertain- 
ed of its opulence and valour. All seemed actuated by a 
noble zeal in the cause of their country : large sums were 
subscribed, companies raised, and regiments formed with 
such alacrity, as quickly banished any apprehensions that 
might be entertained of an invasion. 

The French, who thought themselves secure of victory by 
the accession of Spain, made an attempt on Jersey and Guern- 
sey, but with so little success that not a man could disembark ; 
and in a second attempt their squadron was driven ashore, 
and partly burnt, by a fleet under Sir James Wallace. Thus 
disappointed, they formed the project of invading Great Bri- 
tain. A junction was formed between the French and 
Spanish fleets, which now amounted to sixty sail of the line, 
besides a vast number of frigates and armed vessels. All 
this formidable apparatus, however, ended in nothing but the 
capture of a single ship. They had passed the British fleet 
ander Sir Charles Hardy, in the mouth of the Channel, with.- 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 261 

out observing him, and sailing within sight of Plymouth, they 
took the Ardent of 64 guns ; after which, they returned 
without making any attempt to land. The British Admiral 
endeavoured to entice them up the Channel in pursuit of 
him, but this they did not think proper to attempt; indeed, 
their pusillanimity was such as to make the French them- 
selves ashamed of it. The Spaniards had begun their milita- 
ry operations by the siege of Gibraltar, but with very little 
success ; and the close of the year 1779 and beginning of 
.1780 were attended with considerable advantages to Britain 
In the West-Indies, Sir Hyde Parker and Admiral Rowley 
took several ships of war, and a number of merchantmen. 
Sir G. B. Rodney, who had been entrusted with a fleet for the 
relief of Gibraltar, fell in with, twenty-two sail of Spanish 
ships, and captured the whole in a few hours, and some days 
after he engaged the Spanish fleet of eleven sail of the line, 
and took four of their largest ships ; two others were driven 
on shore, one of which was afterwards got off; the other was 
lost, and one was blown up during the action. 

Having supplied the garrison of Gibraltar with provisions, 
&.c, he proceeded to the West-Indies, where he engaged a 
French fleet of superior force, under the Count de Guichen, 
and obliged it to retire to Guadaloupe ; a second and a third 
engagement ensued, but produced no decisive result. 

In June, the French were joined by a Spanish squadron, 
and their united fleets amounted to thirty-six sail of the 
line. But notwithstanding their vast superiority of force, 
they did not attempt to attack the British fleet, nor any of 
the islands. 

In July, a very important capture was made by the Span- 
iards, of five East-Indiamen, and fifty sail of merchantmen 
that had the misfortune to fall in with their fleet. This, 
however, was fully compensated by the taking of fort Omoa 
from the Spaniards, in which more than 3,000,000 of dollars 
were gained by the victors : and among other valuable com- 
modities, twenty-five quintals of quicksilver, without which 
the Spaniards could not extract the precious metals from 
their mines. 

As if Great Britain had not enemies enough to oppose, 
the Dutch, who had been so often assisted by her, joined 
her enemies ; and at the same time a most formidable con- 
federacy, under the title of the "armed neutrality." w T as 
formed against her, at the head of which was Catharine II. 
of Russia, who induced the kings of Sweden and Denmark 



262 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

also to accede to their plans, which were evidently to crush 
the power of Great Britain entirely. 

But with almost all the powers of Europe arrayed against 
her, the nation was not to be dismayed ; and as the Dutch 
had acted with great perfidy and ingratitude, it was deter- 
mined to take signal vengeance on them. Lord North, in his 
communication to Parliament on the subject, after lamenting 
the necessity of war with Holland, and acknowledging the 
powerful confederacy against Great Britain', added, that when 
he considered the noble stand already made against the 
enemies of the country, and the spirited resources of the 
nation, he was fully convinced that it was equal to the contest. 

But to return to the events of the war. In February 
1781, the Dutch island of St. Eustatia surrendered to Admi- 
ral Rodney and General Vaughan, and in August the Dutch 
fleet fell in with that under Admiral Parker; a bloody 
engagement ensued, though little advantage was gained on 
either side ; the Dutch bore away for the Texel, and the 
English were too disabled to follow them. 

In the East-Indies, the united powers of the French under 
General Lally, and the Indians under the famous Hyder Ali 
and his son Tippoo Saib, were beaten in repeated engage- 
ments by very inferior numbers, and. the Dutch settlements 
suffered very severely. 

In the West-Indies, owing to the vast superiority of the 
combined fleets of France and Spain, nothing of conse- 
quence could be achieved. An indecisive action took place 
between Admiral Hood Imd the Count de Grasse, the result 
of which was at least honourable to the British, the French 
having a superiority of six ships of the line. 

On the continent, Charleston had been reduced by Sir 
Henry Clinton, and Gates was defeated by Lord Cornwallis, 
who with an inferior force gained a very signal victory. Not 
long after, means were found to detach General Arnold, who 
had engaged so ardently in the cause of America, and had 
exhibited so much bravery in the support of it, from the 
interest of the Congress. Major Andre was a principal 
agent in this affair, but he was seized in disguise, and 
executed as a spy. 

These successes were, however, more than counterbal- 
anced by the unfortunate result of the expedition of Lord 
Corn wal lis, who, having overrun Carolina, had entered Vir- 
ginia, where, notwithstanding several partial victories, he 
found himself in a very critical situation. He had expected 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 203 

considerable reinforcements from Sir Henry Clinton, who 
was prevented from sending them by his fears respecting 
New York, against which the Americans made a shew of a 
very formidable attack. But Washington, who in his manoeu- 
vres completely outgeneraled Sir Henry in this affair, sud- 
denly crossed the Delaware, and marched to attack Lord 
Cornwallis ; a large body of French troops assisted in this 
enterprise, and Washington now took measures to surround 
the British. This he did so completely, that Lord Corn- 
wallis, finding that neither skill nor courage could avail, was 
obliged to surrender his whole army prisoners of war. A 
considerable number of cannon, and a large quantity of 
ammunition, fell into the hands of the Americans on this 
occasion. 

As no rational expectation now appeared of the subjuga- 
tion of the colonies, the military operations that succeeded 
in America were of little consequence. The disaster of 
Cornwallis had produced a sincere desire of being at peace 
with the Americans, but that could not be accomplished 
without making peace with France also, whose pretensions 
were too much heightened by success. Minorca had fallen 
into the hands of the Spaniards ; the islands of Nevis and 
St. Christopher had surrendered to De Grasse, the French 
admiral. But an end to their exploits was now approach- 
ing : De Grasse, after a distant engagement, determined to 
close with his formidable antagonist, Rodney. This memo- 
rable action took place on the 12th of April 1782, off the 
island of Dominica. The British fleet consisted of thirty- 
seven sail of the line, the French of thirty-four. The battle 
began at seven in the morning, and continued till the same 
hour at night. Rodney was on board the Formidable, of 
ninety guns, and De Grasse in the Ville de Paris, of one 
hundred and ten. In the course of the action, the Formid- 
able fired no fewer than eighty broadsides. The van was 
led by Sir Samuel Hood, and the rear by Admiral Drake, 
who greatly distinguished themselves in this important vic- 
tory ; but the decisive turn on this memorable day was given 
by a bold manoeuvre of Rodney, who broke the French line, 
and threw them into disorder. The first French ship that 
struck was the Caesar, whose captain fought nobly, and was 
killed in the action ; unfortunately, after she was taken, she 
caught fire accidentally, and blew up, with 200 French and 
ten English seamen on board ; another was sunk during the 
action: and the Ville de Paris, and two seventy-fours were 



264 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

taken. On board their fleet were 5,500 soldiers, so that the 
havoc among these was incredibly great, as well as among 
the seamen. 

On the 19th Sir Samuel Hood, who had been detached 
after the battle with a squadron in pursuit, captured two 
French sixty-fours with the Aim able of thirty-two and the 
Cerrs of eighteen guns ; and about the same time Admiral 
Barrington took the Pegase of seventy-four, and a sixty- 
four, with ten sail of vessels under convoy, off Ushant. 

The greatest disaster which befel the Spaniards was their 
failure before Gibraltar, in besieging which they had employ- 
ed upwards of 100,000 men, an incredible number of can- 
non, mortars, and howitzers, together with a fleet of fifty 
sail of the line, and ten floating batteries, which they boasted 
were proof against fire or water. So assured were they of 
success, that the Count D'Artois, the Duke de Bourbon, and 
military men from all parts of Europe, went to be witnesses 
of what passed at this celebrated siege, which was now com- 
pared to the most famous in history. 

On the 13th of September the floating batteries proceeded 
to take their station in line, about 1,000 yards from the shore, 
and began a heavy cannonade, in which they were seconded 
by all the guns and mortars in their lines and approaches. 
This was answered by hot and cold shot from all the batteries 
of the fort. A terrible fire was kept up on both sides with- 
out intermission till noon, when that of the Spaniards began 
to slacken, and the fire of the garrison to obtain a superiority. 
Soon after their floating batteries were observed to be on fire, 
and at midnight they were completely in flames. On their 
making signals of distress, a multitude of launches, boats, 
&c. went to their assistance. Captain Curtis, who lay ready 
with his gun-boats, advanced upon them at two in the morn- 
ing, forming a line on their flank. At this unexpected attack, 
they were so astonished that they fled to their boats, totally 
abandoning their floating batteries, and all that were in them, 
to perish in the flames. This would undoubtedly have been 
their fate, had not Captain Curtis, at the imminent risk of 
his own life and that of his men, extricated them from 
the fire. 

This terrible catastrophe, which happened within sight of 
the fleets of France and Spain, convinced the Spaniards that 
Gibraltar could not be taken by force, and the relief which 
Lord Howe introduced into the garrison in sight of the com- 
bined fleet, which did not venture to attack him, proved 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 265 

so decisive, that although the blockade continued till the 
preliminaries were signed, no further attack was made. 

Thus all parties were taught that it was high time to put 
an end to the contest. The affair of Cornwallis made the 
reduction of the American colonies a very protracted affair, 
if at all possible. The defeat of De Grasse had rendered 
the conquest of the British possessions in the West-Indies 
impracticable to the French, and the final repulse before 
Gibraltar put an end to that favourite enterprise, in which 
the whole strength of Spain had been employed ; while the 
engagement with the Dutch by Admiral Parker convinced 
them that nothing could be gained by a naval contest with 
Great Britain. A negotiation was accordingly opened at 
Paris, which was protracted by the insidious conduct of the 
French Ministry with regard to concessions in America. 
But the Congress penetrating into the designs of France, 
which were to keep them dependant upon her, made a pro- 
visional treaty with Britain. 

Baffled in this attempt, France urged Spain to insist upon 
the cession of Gibraltar ; but Britain was inflexibly bent on 
keeping it, and her European enemies fearing to encounter 
her when disengaged from the Americans, gave up the point. 
On the 20th of January 1783, preliminaries were signed 
between Great Britain, France, and Spain, in which Holland 
soon after joined, and a definitive treaty was immediately 
concluded. 

Thus an end was put to the most dangerous war in which 
Great Britain had been hitherto engaged ; and in which, not- 
withstanding the powerful combination against her, she still 
maintained a state of superiority over all her enemies. 
Though for a number of years she had been deprived of most 
of her colonies, though attacked at the same time by three 
of the greatest among the continental powers of Europe, 
and looked upon with an invidious eye by all the rest, the 
wounds she inflicted on her enemies greatly exceeded those 
she had received. Their trade by sea was almost ruined, 
and on comparing the loss of ships of war on both sides, 
the balance in favour of Britain was twenty-eight ships of 
the line and thirty-seven frigates, carrying in all about 2,000 
guns. 

Nothing of a military nature occured till the August of 
1787, when dissensions in Holland arose to such a height, as 
to occasion the interference of Prussia in favour of the Stadt- 
liolder, and of France in favour of the insurgents, whom she 

23 



2Q6 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

secretly favoured. The British court in consequence ordered 
an augmentation of forces ; but on the defeat of the malcon- 
tents in Holland, the armaments of France and Britain were 
disbanded by mutual consent. 

In the spring of 1790, England was once more on the 
eve of a war with Spain, owing to a commercial speculation 
set on foot by a company of merchants, whose object was 
to obtain from the northwest coast of America very valuable 
furs. Towards the middle of 1789 this trade had become 
very flourishing, and a colony was formed at Nootka Sound 
as a factory for trade. This excited the jealousy of the 
Spaniards, who sent two ships of war under Admiral Marti- 
nez. Without giving the English the least reason to suspect 
the hostility of his design, he took the opportunity, while 
the traders were dispersed up the country, to seize on the 
English ships and take possession of the town, after which 
he sent the crews of two ships that entered the port in irons 
to Mexico. 

The news of this outrage raised a great sensation in Eng- 
land ; an armament was immediately voted, which by its 
magnitude astonished all Europe : but Spain complied with 
our demands, and the blessings of peace were happily pre- 
served to both countries. 

In the East-Indies, Tippoo Saib, excited by the court of 
France, made war upon our possessions, which continued for 
two years, when Lord Cornwallis, after defeating him in 
various encounters, invested Seringapatam, his capital, and 
forced him to submit to very ignominious terms. 

In the month of March 1791, an armament was prepared 
to act against Russia, then at war with the Turks : but upon 
mutual explanations the measure was given up, when the 
Chancellor of the Exchequer-expressed his belief that Britain 
was long to enjoy the blessings of peace. But how short is 
all human foresight! At that very time the internal discon- 
tents of France were advancing to a catastrophe, by which 
all Europe were involved in war. 

The principal causes of this horrid revolution were the 
general diffusion of immoral, irreligious, and blasphemous 
publications, from the pens of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other 
infidel writers; the oppression of the lower orders of the 
people ; and the state of the finances, w r hich had been long 
much embarrassed, but which, by the expensive war in sup- 
port of the American revolution, were now entirely ruined. 
The measures pursued to replenish the treasury led to publiG 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 267 

discussion and private intrigue, to which Louis XVI. at last 
fell a victim, and monarchy was abolished in France. 

The principles now avowed by the democrats who bore 
the sway in France justly alarmed all the governments of 
Europe. The Emperor of Germany had already been attack- 
ed ; but the ostensible grounds of quarrel on the part of Great 
Britain were chiefly two, — the decree by which encourage- 
ment was held out to the subjects of every state to rebel 
against their lawful government; and the opening of the 
Scheldt, which Great Britain had bound herself to the Dutch 
to prevent. M. Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was 
ordered to quit England, upon which the Convention declared 
war against the King of England and the Stadtholder of 
Holland. This was an artful phraseology, by which they 
wished to intimate a separate interest between the prince 
and people. 

A confederacy had been entered into by Prussia and 
Germany, to which Great Britain now became a party. 
British troops, under the command of the Duke of York, 
joined the allied army, and the Duke besieged and took 
Valenciennes ; the united fleets of Great Britain and Spain 
took Toulon, which was however abandoned shortly after. 

On the 1st of June 1794, the British fleet, under Earl 
Howe, gained a most splendid victory over the French fleet, 
off Ushant. The French had purchased immense quantities 
of grain and other stores, which Lord Howe sailed to inter- 
cept, and the French to protect ; an engagement ensued, in 
which the enemy's line was broken, ten sail were taken, 
and two sunk, but their convoy of provisions got safe into 
port. Another naval victory was gained by Lord Bridport, 
close in with port L' Orient. 

In 1798, a revolution took place in Holland ; the Stadt^ 
holder fled to England, the government was vested in five 
directors, and the state became dependant on France. 

1797. — As the Spaniards had also joined the French re- 
public, Sir John Jervis was despatched against them, gained 
a complete victory over their fleet off Cape St. Vincent, and 
was in consequence created Earl of St. Vincent. A victory 
over the Dutch was likewise gained by Admiral Duncan, 
off Camperdown, in which the Dutch admiral De Winter 
and the vice-admiral were made prisoners, and ten sail of 
the line and two frigates were taken. For this action Duncan 
was raised to the peerage, by the title of Viscount Camper- 
down. The French were now so occupied with their mill* 



268 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

tary operations they scarcely made any efforts by sea, and 
consequently the English had few opportunities of adding 
to their laurels on that element. They took, however, De- 
marara from the Dutch, and reconquered the island of St. 
Lucia ; and a Dutch squadron of seven sail of the line, which 
was sent to recapture the Cape of Good Hope, was obliged 
to surrender to Admiral Elphinstone. 

In the middle of April of this year the uncommon occur- 
rence of a mutiny in the British fleet took place at the Nore. 
For several days the mutineers had the complete command 
of the ships, and appointed two delegates from each, to pre- 
sent their list of grievances, and petition for an increase of 
pay. The government agreed to their demands : but this 
only appeared to increase their audacity, and spread the 
ferment; some ships from Lord Duncan's fleet came and 
joined them, and the navigation of the Thames was com- 
pletely stopt. The ministers were now determined to reduce 
them to obedience by force ; they were declared in a state of 
rebellion ; furnaces for heating red-hot shot were constructed 
on the banks, and all communication cut off between them 
and the shore. At length they quarreled among each other; 
several ships left their mutinous comrades ; and the remain- 
der followed, and surrendered their delegates. Parker, their 
chief, and some few others, suffered death; and the rest 
received pardon, and soon wiped off their disgrace by the 
brilliant though bloody victory over the Dutch fleet. 

In December, a French squadron of eighteen ships of the 
line and thirteen frigates, having on board 25,000 men under 
General Hoche, sailed from Brest, to make a descent on 
Ireland, where they falsely supposed they should be joined 
by the greater part of that nation. At their outset several 
of their ships were lost, the remainder were separated in a 
violent gale of wind, and their admiral arrived at Ban try 
Bay with only a small number of ships, in a very shattered 
state. After waiting some days for Hoche, who alone was 
entrusted with the despatches, the admiral returned to France, 
after losing a ship of the line and two frigates, which foun- 
dered at sea. One ship of the line was driven on shore, 
and a frigate captured by the English. The French were 
indeed baffled by the elements : but from the reception which 
the well-tried bravery and unshaken loyalty of the Irish were 
preparing for them, there can be little doubt that the elements 
were their best friends. 

The invasion of England and Ireland being abandoned 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 269 

by the French, General Buonaparte, who had shewn great 
military skill in Italy against the Austrians, proposed a plan 
•for seizing on the Turkish province of Egypt, with a view 
to invade and subvert the British empire in India. 

In May 1798, he set sail with thirteen ships of the line, 
seven frigates, and 200 transports. On the 9th of June this 
expedition appeared before Malta, which the Grand Master 
surrendered most disgracefully ; one of the conditions was 
that he should receive during his life, 300,000 livres per 
annum. 

Leaving a garrison in Malta, and being joined by sixty 
transports with troops from Italy, Buonaparte sailed for Alex- 
andria, which was taken by assault, and a great slaughter 
was made of the Arabs and Mamelukes who defended it. 
From Alexandria he marched to Rosetta, and proceeding to 
Grand Cairo, encountered one of the chiefs of the Mame- 
lukes, whose undisciplined army he almost annihilated, after 
which he entered Grand Cairo in triumph. 

But Buonaparte was now to meet with an enemy very 
different from the flying Arabs. Admiral Nelson, who had 
been despatched in pursuit of the enemy, after sailing twice 
across the Mediterranean, at last found the French fleet at 
anchor in Aboukir Bay, in line of battle, close to a shoal, 
flanked by gun-boats, and a battery of mortars erected on an 
island in their van. The French admiral, who had no con- 
ception that the British would attempt the hazardous enter- 
prise of running their ships between the shoal and his fleet, 
vainly deemed his position impregnable. But Nelson soon 
convinced him what British seamen could do, when led on 
by such a commander. After a battle, which began August 
1st at sunset, and continued till daybreak of the 2d, nine 
sail of the line were taken, one was burnt by her own com- 
mander, and a frigate was also burnt, to prevent their falling 
into the hands of the victors. The admiral's ship L'Orient 
blew up about midnight, with a tremendous explosion, and 
nearly the whole of her crew, of 1,000 men, perished. Two 
French ships of the line and two frigates, which had fled, 
were afterwards captured. 

No naval engagement in modern times ever produced such 
important consequences. It gave fresh courage to the pow- 
ers of the continent to renew the contest in the cause of 
order and good government. The King of Naples attacked 
the enemy in Italy. The Turks proclaimed war against 

23* 



270 THE HOUSE CF BRUNSWICK. 

them, and a new coalition was formed with Germany and 
Russia, which had hitherto remained neutral. 

The French now no longer ventured to send any large 
fleets to sea, but wherever their small fleets appeared they 
were overpowered by the superior skill and courage of the 
British. 

The French Directory had long endeavoured to foment 
rebellion in Ireland, by promising aid to the disaffected party, 
who, by the oppressive measures of government, had now 
increased in a formidable manner. A regular correspondence 
had been kept up between them; but, weary of fruitless 
expectation, the United Irishmen, as they were called, broke 
out into actual warfare. While the rebellion was at its 
height, the French did not appear ; but after it was totally 
subdued, they attempted to elude the vigilance of the British, 
and to land in small parties. On the 22d of August, General 
Humbert landed with about 900 men ; but finding very few 
of the Irish, even of the meanest, join him, and that Lord 
Cornwallis was surrounding him, he surrendered himself 
prisoner with his army. 

The Directory still endeavoured to create alarm and keep up 
the spirit of disaffection, by sending small squadrons with troops 
towards Ireland. In October, Sir John Borlase Warren took 
La Hoche, of 120 guns, and four frigates, with 3,000 men 
on board. On the 20th another frigate was captured, bound 
to Ireland. The French, now finding the sea completely 
occupied by the British, desisted at last from their enter- 
prise. 

In 1799, the Duke of York invaded Holland, for the pur- 
pose of re-establishing the Stadtholder. After taking the 
fort of the Helder, and the island of the Texel, Admiral 
Mitchel summoned the Dutch fleet, of eight-sail of the line, 
seven smaller vessels, and four Indiamen, to surrender and 
hoist the Orange flag, which they did. Several partial en- 
gagements ensued, in which the Duke, who had been joined 
by a body of Russians, was successful ; but finding the winter 
set in, the French receiving great reinforcements, and a total 
want of co-operation on the part of the Dutch, a suspension 
of arms was agreed upon, the prisoners on each side were 
given up, and the British evacuated the country. 

In the West-Indies, the valuable Dutch colony of Surinam 
was reduced, and all the ships of war, together with the 
immense magazines belonging to their government, were 
given up by capitulation.. 



THE NICK. 271 

^ In the East-Indies, the arms of Great Britain were crowned 
with eminent success. Seringapatam wa;; taken by assault, 
by the army under General Harris, and Tippoo Saib found 
among the slain. 

Thus perished the most formidable enemy of Great Britain 
in India. His dominions were divided among the British 
and their allies, and a legal descendant of the Sultaun, whom 
Hyder Aly, the father of Tippoo, had dispossessed of his 
throne. 

Buonaparte, finding his army by the defeat of the French 
fleet entirely separated from France, did all in his power to 
gain a firm footing in Egypt. He professed himself a great 
admirer of Mahomet, and that he was come to restore their 
pristine grandeur. After various partial battles, in which he 
was uniformly successful, he commenced the siege of Acre, 
with 12,000 veteran troops. But here the hero of France 
was to meet with a disgraceful defeat from a handful of 
British sailors, under Sir Sidney Smith, who had previously 
taken a whole French flotilla, laden with heavy artillery and 
other articles for the siege. Under Sir Sidney's directions, 
Buonaparte was detained before this fortress sixty days, dur- 
ing which he was foiled in eleven different attempts to carry 
it by storm. One of these was made during a truce which 
he had requested to bury his dead; but like the others it 
failed, and he was obliged to retreat, leaving eight of his 
generals, eighty-five officers, and half his army behind him. 
This defeat, which effectually stopped his career, will be 
considered as very important, when it is known that by his 
intrigues he had prevailed on the numerous tribes of dervises 
to join him after the reduction of the fortress, to the amount 
of 60,000 men. 

Finding all his hopes frustrated in Egypt, Buonaparte 
secretly withdrew with General Berthier and a few others, 
and landed in safety in France, after narrowly escaping from 
an English ship that chased him into port. Having pre- 
viously, it is supposed, had information that the people of 
France were weary of their Directory, and ripe for a change, 
he with the assistance of his brother Lucien, seized the 
opportunity, and caused himself to be elected First Consul, 
under which title he obtained all the powers of an absolute 
monarch. After a pretended attempt to treat for peace with 
Great Britain, he succeeded in uniting Russia, Sweden, and 
Denmark, in an armed neutrality, hostile to the interests 



272 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

of England ; while, at the same time, he commenced formid- 
able preparations for a descent. 

To break up this northern confederacy, which had for its 
professed object the affirmative of the famous question, 
" whether the navigation of the sea ought to be free, or sub- 
ject to certain restrictions," a strong armament was fitted 
out, consisting of seventeen sail of the line, three frigates, 
and twenty bomb-ketches, under Sir Hyde Parker. On the 
2d of April 1801, Lord Nelson, who had offered his services 
for the conduct of the attack, made the signal ; and after one 
of the most tremendous conflicts ever known, the whole 
Danish line of seventeen sail were sunk, burnt, or taken. 
The carnage on board the Danish ships was dreadful. Three 
of our ships had in the meanwhile grounded, and lay exposed 
to a terrible fire from the shore. Mutual interest now seemed 
to require a cessation of hostilities, and Lord Nelson there- 
fore wrote to the Crown Prince, and a cessation accordingly 
took place. In the midst of the conference which ensued, 
the death of the Emperor of Russia, who was at the head 
of the confederacy, was announced ; and as his son and 
successor consented to abandon it, the inferior potentates 
followed his example. 

The French now made preparations for attacking Portu- 
gal, the only remaining ally of Great Britain, and at the 
same time collected an immense force along the coast for 
the express purpose of invading England. But the English 
Government, far from being alarmed, sent Sir Halph Aber- 
crombie with 18,000 men to attack the French in Egypt, 
whose army amounted to 30,000 men. On the 2d of March 
the British fleet arrived off Aboukir, but were unable for six 
days to effect a landing, during which interval they had the 
mortification to see the time employed by the French in 
manning the fort and erecting batteries. Under the direc- 
tion of Captain Cochrane, attended by Sir Sidney Smith, 
the division ordered to land, consisting of 6,000 men, moved 
towards the shore. The boats had a considerable distance to 
row, and were exposed to the fire of fifteen pieces of artil- 
lery besides musketry : but the bravery and cool intrepidity 
of the British overcame every obstacle, and they succeeded 
in stationing their advanced posts about four miles beyond 
Aboukir. On the 25th took place the general action, in 
which, after prodigies of valour, the British were victorious, 
although they lost their general, Sir Ralph Abercrombie, 
who was mortally wounded by a musket ball in the moment 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 273 

of victory. Major General Hutchinson, on whom the com- 
mand devolved, advanced to Grand Cairo, which surren- 
dered, and at Alexandria the French agreed to a capitula- 
tion, by which they entirely evacuated the country. 

The war now became without an object, and a desire for 
the return of peace manifested itself between the belligerent 
powers. Mr. Pitt retired from office, and under the auspices 
of Mr. Addington, his successor, a negotiation was com- 
menced ; preliminaries were signed October 1st, and on the 
27th of March 1802, Lord Cornwallis concluded at Amiens, 
with the ministers of France, Spain, and the Batavian 
Republic, a definitive treaty of peace, which was proclaimed 
at London on the 29th of April. By its conditions England 
gave up all conquests made during the war except the islands 
of Ceylon and Trinidad ; Portugal gave up a part of Guiana 
to France *, the Ionian republic was acknowledged ; and 
Malta, which was in possession of the English, was to be 
restored to the Knights within a certain time, and on certain 
conditions. 

This treaty was received with great joy by both French 
and English ; but it was soon found to be nothing more than 
an armed truce ; a peace with a revolutionary government, 
with an ambitious usurper, who could make a rupture when- 
ever his spleen, caprice, or temporary advantage prompted a 
violation of the contract, and consequently a peace which 
could never be considered permanent. 

Even before the signature of the definitive treaty the 
Chief Consul began his plans of ambition, by causing him- 
self to be chosen president of the Cisalpine Republic, which 
thus greatly increased the power of France. 

His Majesty's speech, at the opening of Parliament in 
November, alluded to these encroachments, and the aug- 
mentation of the army and navy was considered as a certain 
presage of the renewal of war. 

At the end of this year a conspiracy against the Govern- 
ment, at the head of which was a Colonel Despard, was dis- 
covered. He and six of his associates were executed 
according to their sentence. 

In 1803, a correspondence between the English and 
French Governments had for some time been kept up rela- 
tive to various subjects of complaint. On the part of France, 
the delay in the evacuation of Malta was the chief topic. 
On that of England, the conduct of France in destroying 
the independence of the Knights of Malta, and seizing the 



274 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

funds destined for their support. This and some other 
grounds of complaint were the causes of the renewal of a 
war, which in its progress ruined almost all Europe. 

The First Consul, whose rage knew no bounds at having 
his ambitious schemes thwarted, wreaked his vengeance on 
all the English who, confiding in the faith of nations, had 
for business or pleasure entered the French territories, by 
arresting and detaining them and all their effects. At the 
commencement of the war a French army under Mortier 
invaded Hanover, of which they took possession. But the 
grand object of Buonaparte was the invasion of England, 
and for this purpose all the shipwrights and boat-builders 
were put in requisition, and an immense number was col- 
lected at Boulogne. 

The English Government, although convinced of the 
futilhvy of the attempt, did not neglect the means of defence, 
and the spirit of the people nobly seconded their views. 
Volunteers to the amount of 300,000 men, completely 
equipped, eveiy where appeared to defend their country ; 
the navy was put on a formidable footing ; and all the ports 
of Holland and France were closely blockaded. 

In the West Indies, the Islands of St. Lucia and Tobago 
were taken, in the month of June ; and in September, the 
Dutch settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice 
were captured. 

In the east, Generals Lake and Wellesley greatly distin- 
guished themselves in a war against several Mahratta chiefs, 
aided by a French force. The Peishwah of Poonah, an ally 
of Great Britain, was re-established in his dominions, from 
which he had been expelled, and a complete victory was 
gained by General Wellesley, over an army six times the 
number of his own, with an immense train of artillery. 
General Lake also defeated an army near Delhi, commanded 
by a French officer, and reinstated the Mogul Emperor, who 
had been kept prisoner by the enemy. These defeats com- 
pletely humbled the Mahrattas, and peace was made, by 
which immense territorial possessions were annexed to our 
dominions, and the power of France completely annihi- 
lated. On the 1 4th of February 1804, the French Admiral 
Linois formed the design of capturing the whole East-India 
Company's ships of twenty-seven sail : but Captain Dance, 
who acted as Commodore, placing his ships in line of battle, 
without waiting to be attacked, bore down on the enemy, 
who declined the combat and lied. 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 2T5 

Spain having joined France, Commodore Moore was sent 
to intercept the treasures which were on their way to Cadiz 
from America. On the 5th of October, four Spanish frigates 
were descried and overtaken : three of them were taken, 
with an immense booty of dollars and bullion ; the fourth 
blew up with all her crew. 

This year Buonaparte was constituted Emperor of the 
French, which dignity was made hereditary in his family ; 
and on the 19th of November he was crowned at Paris by 
the Pope, who had been obliged to take a journey from Rome 
for that purpose. Thus Republicanism, which had cost the 
lives of hundreds of thousands of Frenchmen, vanished, 
and in its place a monarchy more absolute and oppressive 
than that of the Bourbons was established. 

War once more broke out in India, and Holkar, the Mah- 
ratta chief, was again beaten, first by General Frazier, and 
then by Lord Lake. 

The year 1805 is remarkable for the magnitude of the 
preparations to" resist the increasing power of Buonaparte, 
who had now annexed Genoa to the French empire, and 
caused himself to be crowned King of Italy. He had writ- 
ten a letter to the King of England, offering to treat for 
peace separately. This was refused, and in consequence he 
made great preparations for his favourite threat, the invasion 
of Great Britain. England on her side made common cause 
with her Allies, and by articles agreed on between her and 
Austria and Russia, they were to bring into the field half a 
million of men, for which Great Britain was to allow 
£12 10.?. per man. 

The events of this campaign proved very disastrous to the 
Allies. The Austrian General Mack suffered himself to be 
surrounded by Buonaparte, at Ulm, and was obliged to 
capitulate with all his army. The French immediately 
marched to Vienna, which they entered, and then pursued 
the Russians into Moravia. 

In Italy, the Archduke Charles was beaten by Massena, 
and obliged to retreat towards Austria, where he was joined 
by 90,000 Russians. On the 2d December the fatal battle 
of Austerlitz began, and continued till night, when, after 
the most sanguinary attacks, victory declared for the French, 
and from this day the continent lay prostrate to the French 
for some years. On the 4th an armistice was agreed upon, 
and two days after the Russians retreated to their own coun- 



. 276 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

try, while Austria made peace on the terms dictated by 
Buonaparte. 

But while the French were thus successful against the 
Allies on land, their naval power received its final blow by 
the memorable battle of Trafalgar. Lord Nelson, who had 
searched every part of the Mediterranean' in pursuit of the 
enemy under Villeneuve the French admiral, having at last 
obtained intelligence of his destination immediately pro- 
ceeded to the West-Indies. Villeneuve hearing of his arri- 
val, set sail on his return to France without attempting any 
thing against our possessions, although he had 10,000 men 
on board. On his return towards Cadiz, he was met by Sir 
Robert Calder, who, notwithstanding his great inferiority of 
force, made the signal for attack, and after a severe action, 
captured two sail of the line. 

In the mean time Lord Nelson had returned to England, 
and being reinforced, sailed again towards Cadiz, into which 
the combined fleets of France and Spain had entered. On 
the 19th of October their fleet, to the amount of thirty-three 
sail of the line, left Cadiz for the straits of Gibraltar. The 
British fleet of twenty-seven sail of the line pursued, and 
on the 21st came up with them off Cape Trafalgar. On the 
approach of Nelson, the French drew up their line in form 
of a crescent, while Nelson, whose plan of attack was admi- 
rable, bore down on them in a double column, his last tele- 
graphic signal being : " England expects every man to do 
his duty." Nobly did the British seamen perform it on that 
day. In four hours the battle terminated in the total defeat 
of the French and Spaniards, w r ho lost nineteen sail of the 
line, and Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals were cap- 
tured. The loss of our men, although considerable, was 
greatly aggravated by that of Lord Nelson, who received a 
musket ball in his breast, and died at the moment of victory. 

On the 1st of July 1806, General Stuart, who had, since 
the invasion of Naples by the French, occupied Sicily, 
embarked a body of 4,800 men, and landed in Calabria. On 
the 4th he attacked General Regnier, who had 7,000 veteran 
French troops under his command. The armies, after some 
firing, rushed on each other with the bayonet, but at the 
moment of meeting, the French turned their backs, and a 
terrible slaughter was made of them, their regiment, called 
the Invincible, being nearly annihilated. 

Prussia was this year rash enough to engage singly against 
France and the Confederates of the Rhine, as the German 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 277 

states subservient to France were called by Buonaparte. The 
consequence was, the battle of Jena, in which the Prussians 
were defeated with immense slaughter, the Duke of Bruns- 
wick their general was killed, and Prussia entirely subdued. 

This } r ear the Cape of Good Hope was taken by Sir David 
Baird and Sir Home Popham, who, without any orders from 
home, ventured to attack the Spanish dominions in South 
America. They succeeded under General Beresford in 
taking Buenos A} r res ; but the Spaniards having recovered 
from their panic, attacked the British with superior numbers, 
and obliged them to retreat to their ships. 

In 1807, after various bloody battles, the Russians and 
Prussians made peace with Buonaparte, on condition of their 
acceding to the Confederation of the Rhine, and shutting 
the ports of Prussia against the introduction of British manu- 
factures, called by Buonaparte the continental system. 

The Dutch island of Curaooa surrendered to a British 
squadron under Captain Brisbane, on the 1st of January of 
this year ; and on the 2d of February Monte-Video was 
taken by Sir Samuel Achmuty and Admiral Stirling. 

In the summer, the recapture of Buenos Ayres was 
attempted by General Whitelock : which proved very unfor- 
tunate ; no less than 2,500 intrepid men were killed, wounded, 
or made prisoners. Whitelock on his return was tried, and 
sentenced to be cashiered, and was declared unworthy of ever 
serving again in any military capacity. 

As it appeared evident that Denmark could not long retain 
her neutrality, it was determined to prevent the Danish fleet 
from falling into the hands of the French. A proposal was 
made to the Danish Court to deposit their fleet in the British 
ports, under a solemn guarantee to restore them at the con- 
clusion of the war : the Danes refused to listen to this, and 
an attack on Copenhagen was the consequence. After a 
dreadful conflagration and carnage a capitulation was signed, 
and their fleet given up. Russia was so indignant at this 
attack, that she issued a manifesto, declaring her determina- 
tion of breaking off all intercourse with Great Britain. 

Every port of the continent being thus closed against us 
except Sweden, an expedition was sent out against the 
island of Heligoland, which was taken, and afforded to the 
merchants a secure port and an entrance into all the rivers 
on that side of Germany, for the admission of their produce. 

This year a treaty was made between France and Spain, 
the object of which was the conquest of Portugal. For this 

21 



278 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

purpose a French aimy under General Junot traversed 
Spain, and entering Portugal, advanced towards Lisbon. 
The Prince Regent of Portugal, seeing no prospect of resist- 
ance, quitted his country, and sought for safety in his South 
American dominions, accompanied by a British squadron. 

1808. — This year Murat with a large army of French 
entered Madrid as the friend and ally of Ferdinand, who 
had succeeded to the throne after the deposition of his 
father. By some mysterious intrigue Ferdinand, his father, 
and his two brothers, with a number of the nobles, were allured 
to Bayonne, where Buonaparte compelled them to sign a 
formal abdication of the throne of Spain. Napoleon then 
declared the throne vacant, and transferred it to his brother 
Joseph Buonaparte, who abdicated the throne of Naples in 
favour of Murat. 

These diabolical proceedings inflamed the Spaniards to the 
utmost: a general rising took place, and juntas were estab- 
lished to give order to the patriotic enthusiasm. At this crisis 
the Spaniards solicited the aid of England : peace between 
the two countries was proclaimed, and great quantities of 
arms and ammunition were sent over. Portugal followed 
the example of her neighbours: the French were expelled 
from Oporto, Coimbra, and other towns, and obliged to con- 
centrate their forces near Lisbon. 

The British Government being resolved to afford every 
possible aid to her ancient ally, Portugal, sent General Sir 
Arthur Wellesley with 10,000 men, who, after defeating a 
French corps at Roleia, advanced to Vimeira, where they 
were met by Junot with nearly the whole of his army from 
Lisbon. A battle was fought, which ended in the total defeat 
of the French, though greatly superior in number. The 
British troops immediately advanced upon Lisbon. At Cin- 
tra, however, a convention was signed between Junot and 
Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who had taken the command of the 
English army, by which it was agreed to convey the French 
troops to France, and the Russian ships in the Tagus to be 
sent to England, as a deposit till peace was made between 
Russia and Great Britain. 

General Sir John Moore, who now commanded the British 
troops, marched into Spain to the assistance of the Patriots, 
who had been unable to withstand the French armies, now 
directed by Buonaparte himself, with some of his ablest gen- 
erals. 

The British army, by the junction of Sir David Baird from 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 279 

Corunna, amounted to 23,000 foot and 2000 cavahy, and with 
these, he continued to advance, intending to give battle to Mar- 
shal Soult ; but receiving intelligence of the plan of the French 
Emperor, with his numerous armies, to surround him and to 
cut off his retreat, he immediately began to retrograde through 
Gallicia, in the course of which the army experienced great 
distress from privation of food, and the rapidity of their march. 
On Hie 1 1 tli of January 1809 they reached Corunna. closely 
followed by the French, who took a position above the town 
to obstruct their embarkation. An obstinate engagement 
ensued : Sir John Moore was mortally wounded, but the 
English finally repulsed the enemy, and effected their retreat 
to the ships without further molestation. 

In April another British army, under the command of Sir 
Arthur Wellesley, landed at Lisbon, and immediately march- 
ed towards Oporto against Marshal Soult, who had again 
entered Portugal and taken possession of that city. On the 
approach of the English Soult retreated, pursued by Welles- 
ley, who having formed a junction with Cuesta, a Spanish 
general, their combined armies proceeded to Talavera, where 
they were attacked by a French army of 70,000 veterans, 
commanded by Joseph, the usurping King of Spain, who had 
under him Jourdan and Sebastiani. After a bloody battle, 
the French were repulsed with the loss of 10,000 men and 
many pieces of artillery. The loss of the English, in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners, w T as about half that number. For 
this brilliant victory Sir Arthur Wellesley was raised to the 
dignity of the peerage, with the title of Lord Wellington. 

Immediately after the. action, Lord Wellington, who had 
received news of the junction of the armies under Soult, Ney, 
and Victor, commenced his retreat towards Portugal, leaving 
the Spaniards to themselves. After repeated defeats, the 
latter were obliged to abandon all their positions, and retreat 
to Cadiz, where they were determined to hold out to the 
last extremity, and which city indeed was impregnable, as 
ong as they had the English for their allies. 

The determined resistance of the undisciplined Spaniards 
had infused fresh hopes into the powers of the Continent, 
and Austria now resolved to take advantage of it, and make 
a grand dibit to retrieve her former disgrace. In April the 
Austriaris entered Bavaria, but were defeated in two battles 
by Napoleon, aided by the Bavarians, Saxons, Wurtemburgs, 
and Poles, who now fought under his standard against their 
countrymen. Napoleon, with his usual rapidity, marched 



280 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

towards Vienna, which a second time surrendered to the 
French. The Archduke Charles, who commanded the Aus- 
trians, was en the north bank of the Danube with 70,000 
men, to prevent the French from crossing that river. Napo- 
leon, however, by means of some islands which lie in the 
river a few miles up, succeeded in establishing his army on 
the north side. The Archduke immediately resolved on a 
general attack, and after a sanguinary battle, obliged Buona- 
parte to retreat to the island of Lobau, with the loss of 30,000 
of his best troops. Having received great reinforcements, 
and raised bridges from the island to the northern bank, the 
whole French army once more crossed the river ; and in 
July was fought the dreadful battle of Wagram, in which it 
is supposed 300,000 men were engaged. After the most 
heroic efforts on the part of the Austrians, who were inferior 
in number, they were totally defeated, and obliged to con- 
clude an armistice : and on the 15th of October peace was 
signed between the two countries. 

During this summer an expedition, upon a large scale, was 
planned by the British Ministry, to make a grand diversion 
in favour of the Austrians, by a descent on the islands of the 
Scheldt. The fleet sailed the 1st of August, and in a short 
time the whole of the islands of Walcheren and South Beve- 
land were conquered; but the insalubrity of that low, marshy 
country, made such dreadful havoc among the troops, that 
after remaining till the end of the year, it was resolved to 
abandon the country. Such was the end of this most expen- 
sive, most ill-advised, and unfortunate expedition, which pro- 
duced the deepest sensation of shame and regret, among the 
people, and was the subject of very strong debates in the 
House of Commons. 

The whole of Spain, with the exception of Cadiz, was, at 
the beginning of the year 1810^in the military occupation of 
the French, although the guerillas, a species of armed popu- 
lation, much harassed the enemy, by seizing their supplies, 
and cutting off all stragglers from the main armies. 

The great contest for the possession of Portugal now began, 
Massena having entered with 80,000 men. Ney had invest- 
ed Ciudad Rodrigo, which, with Almeida, was obliged to 
surrender. Lord Wellington concentrated his forces, and 
retreated towards Lisbon. Massena, who had closely pursued, 
came up with him at the strong position of Busaco, and com- 
menced an attack, which was bravely repulsed by the British 
$t the point of the bayonet; although so much inferior in 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 281 

numbers to their enemy. Without pursuing the victory, 
Wellington continued his retreat towards the very strong lines 
of Torres Vedras, about twenty-five miles from Lisbon, which 
he had previously admirably fortified. 

Massena, finding these lines impregnable, contented him- 
self with fixing his head-quarters at Santorcm, a village on 
the Tagus, collecting provisions ; of which, however, owing 
to the policy of Wellington, who had taken every thing pos- 
sible away with him in his retreat, he could only make a 
scanty supply : his army, in consequence, underwent great 
privations, from which that of Lord Wellington, with the sea 
open, the capital behind him, and his camp well secured from 
the rains, was entirely exempt. 

Some important acquisitions were made by England this 
year in the West-Indies and other parts. Guadaloupe sur- 
rendered, and left the French without a single island in that 
quarter ; and shortly after, the islands of Bourbon and Mau- 
ritus were taken, together with five frigates, twenty-eight 
merchant-men, and two East-Indiamen. The French forts 
in the island of Madagascar were destroyed, which also stript 
them of every foot of territory in the East. Amboyna, and 
the isle of Banda, were also taken from the Dutch, and the 
captors shared an immense booty. 

In the beginning of March 1811, Massena, whose army 
had suffered greatly during the winter, commenced his re- 
treat from Portugal, closely followed by Lord Wellington, 
whose cavalry was unfortunately much too inferior in num- 
ber to impede the march of the enemy with effect. 
* v Almeida was now invested by Lord Wellington, whilst 
Marshal Beresford besieged Olivensa, which surrendered in 
April. In May, Massena crossed the Agueda, and made an 
attack on the British with a view to relieve Almeida. The 
French were repulsed at every point, obliged to retreat, 
and leave Almeida to its fate ; that place was evacuated in 
the night, and the garrison escaped after blowing up the 
works. 

To relieve Badajoz, Soult attacked Beresford, whose army 
had been reinforced by the Corps of Blake and Castanos. 
After a sanguinary action the French were repulsed ; but 
the want of cavalry again prevented the Allies from profiting 
of the victory. The loss of the British and Portuguese was 
nearly 5,000 men, while that of the French was upwards 
of 9,000, with five generals killed or wounded. In October, 

24* 



28-2 TEE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

General Hill defeated a French corps under General Girard, 
and took all his artillery and baggage. 

General Graham, who had sailed with 3,000 men to make 
an attack on the blockading army before Cadiz, performed a 
very brilliant action, in driving a French force of nearly 
three times his number from the steep heights of Barrosa, 
after a very sanguinary engagement, in which the loss of the 
French amounted to 3,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
whilst that of the British was 1,240. This diminution of 
their numbers, however, obliged them to return to Cadiz, 
without interrupting, the blockade. 

As the French had now no fleet to oppose the British, few 
opportunities occurred of displaying the valour of British 
seamen : Captain Horte, however, with a small squadron, 
totally defeated a French one of nearly treble his force. 
During this summer, Buonaparte was very active with his 
preparations for the invasion of England, and conscripts from 
all parts were sent to learn the necessary manoeuvres, at Ant- 
werp and other places. 

Much angry feeling was excited in America at the non- 
repeal of our orders in council, and an incident occurred 
which seemed likely to fan this feeling into a flame. The 
United States frigate, the President, met an English sloop, 
and as neither captain chose to answer the first question 
" What ship ?" a firing commenced, which continued nearly 
three quarters of an hour, when a suspension took place, 
and they recognised each other. Much temporary exaspe- 
ration was the consequence of this affair : but the two gov- 
ernments disavowing any hostile orders, no other consequence 
resulted from it. 

In the East, the island of Java w r as taken, after a series 
of brilliant actions performed by the British advanced troops, 
under the command of Colonel Gillespie, who with a very 
inferior number stormed and took the very strongly intrench- 
ed camp of General Jansens, defended by 10,000 Dutch 
troops. This brilliant victory completed the conquest of the 
Dutch settlements in the East. 

In 1812, the war in the Peninsula was carried on with 
unabated activity. Marshal Victor, with 10,000 men, was 
obliged to retreat from before TariiFa, which was bravely 
defended by Colonel Skerret with a handful of English and 
Spaniards, amounting only to 1,800 men. 

On the 9th of January Lord Wellington invested Ciudad 
Rodrigo, and on the 19th it was carried by storm ; as was 



9PIIE not . mac. 28'3 

also Badajoz, after an obstinate defence, in which the I 
the English and Portuguese amounted to nearly 5,000 men 
in killed and wounded. In the latter place, which had been 
very strongly fortified, were taken an immense quantity of 
military stores. 

The capture of these two strong positions having left Lord 
Wellington secure in the rear, he advanced rapidly into 
Spain, and at Salamanca was encountered by Marshal Mar* 
mont. After a variety of marchings and counter-marchings, 
the French general having gained some positions on the 
heights, extended his left wing, and then moved his army 
under cover of a heavy cannonade to the attack. The ex- 
tension of the enemy's left afforded Lord Wellington, who 
had closely watched the intricate movements of Marmont, 
an opportunity of which he instantly took an advantage. 
The action became general, and lasted from three in the 
afternoon till night, when the French fled in all directions, 
leaving behind them 7,000 prisoners, among whom were one 
general, six colonels, and 130 officers of inferior rank. Four 
of their general officers were killed, and Marshal Marmont, 
their commander-in-chief, was severely wounded. The loss 
of the Allies, of which the far greater part was English, 
amounted to above 5,000 killed, wounded, and missing. 

This great battle had not at first all the advantages which 
might have been expected, owing to the unwillingness of the 
Spaniards to submit their operations to the control of a foreign 
general, which alone could produce that union of efforts, 
absolutely necessary for the success of the war. After hav- 
ing entered Madrid, Lord Wellington advanced to Burgos, 
a very strong fortification, which he endeavoured to take by 
storm, but failed in the attempt ; and found himself obliged, 
by the concentration of all the different corps of the French 
in those parts, and the advance of the armies of Soult and 
Victor, to retrograde once more towards Portugal. In this 
retreat Lord Wellington displayed the most consummate abili- 
ties, conducting his army before very superior numbers to 
Fre}mada, on the frontiers of Portugal, where he established 
his head-quarters. 

The victory of Salamanca had filled the Spaniards with 
exultation ; and the subsequent retreat of Lord Wellington 
convinced them that they must sacrifice all pride and jealousy 
to the general good, and they therefore appointed him com- 
mander-in-chief of all their armies. 

After various angry negotiations, the American Govern- 



284 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

merit declared war against Great Britain on the 18th of June, 
and immediately directed their efforts to the conquest of 
Canada, which they had long wished to annex to their do- 
minions. For this purpose their General Hull entered that 
province, but suffered himself to lie shut up in Fort Detroit, 
where he was besieged by an inferior British force, and 
obliged to surrender his whole army, of '2, 500 men and thiity- 
six pieces of cannon. This disgrace was followed by another, 
in the surrender of General Wadsworth and 900 men, to a 
British corps under Major-General Sheaffe. 

These defeats were, however, in a certain degree compen- 
sated by some success at sea. The first action took place on 
the 19th of August, between the American frigate the Con- 
stitution and the English frigate Guerriere, in which the 
latter was obliged to strike to the very superior fire of the 
American. This was followed by the capture of the British 
frigate the Macedonian, after a dreadful engagement of more 
than two hours by the United States, Commodore Decatur, 
a frigate with the scantling of a seventy-four. These occur- 
rences, so uncommon in the British navy, were a subject of 
great mortification to England, and of comparative exultation 
to the Americans. 

In Europe, the gathering storm of the preceding year 
burst forth with all its fury, and produced effects unexpected 
by the most profound politicians, attended by a destruction 
of the human species unparalleled in modern warfare. Russia, 
whose principal trade was with England, having refused to 
concur with Buonaparte in his favourite plan of shutting 
every European port on the Continent against British com- 
merce, he resolved to force the Emperor of Russia into sub- 
mission ; and for this purpose assembled all the disposable 
force he could collect, both in France and every foreign State 
under his control. This immense mass of veteran troops, 
thus marshalled under his banners, in the finest state of equip- 
ment and discipline, amounted to upwards of 300,000 men, 
and with these he passed the Vistula, where he was joined 
by large bodies of the Poles, whom he entertained with pro- 
mises of freedom from Russian tyranny, and the re-establish- 
ment of their former independence. 

About the beginning of July, the whole French army, 
with their confederates, entered the Russian territory, with- 
out opposition from the Russians, whose armies were much 
inferior to the French, and who had in consequence adopted 
the plan of acting entirely on the defensive ; concentrating 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 285 

their force, and making a stand only in favourable positions, 
destroying everything that could furnish subsistence as they 
advanced, and trusting to their immense desarts and pathless 
woods, joined to the inclemencies of a Russian winter, for 
the final destruction of their invaders. 

The first determined stand made by the Russians was at 
Smolensko. After a most sanguinary conflict, the Russians 
evacuated the city, and retreated towards Moscow. Smo- 
lensko, on the retreat of the Russians, was set on fire, whether 
accidentally or by the retreating army is not known. The 
Russians continued their retreat till they arrived at the village 
of Moscwa, where they took up a strong position to cover 
their ancient capital, which they determined to defend to the 
last extremity. Here they were attacked by the whole 
French army ; and after a battle, the most bloody recorded 
in modern warfare, which lasted from morning till night, the 
Russians, though claiming the victory, w r ere obliged to aban- 
don Moscow, and Buonaparte entering the Kremlin, sat down 
in the seat of the Czars. 

But, however flattering the conquest of Moscow might be 
to his vanity, he suddenly found himself the master of noth- 
ing but smoking ruins. The Russians had determined to 
sacrifice this great capital in order to deprive the French of 
winter-quarters, and so well had they taken their measures, 
that an instantaneous conflagration burst forth in various parts 
of the city, which, from the greater part of the houses being 
built of wood, v;as irresistible, and consumed almost the 
whole of the buildings. So dreadful and unexpected a 
catastrophe alarmed the French, and convinced them that 
the Russians were determined to sacrifice every thing rather 
than submit. Buonaparte now made overtures of peace, 
which were rejected with disdain, and fresh bodies of Rus- 
sians arriving, all supplies were entirely cut off from the 
French army. Buonaparte however lingered some time, 
unwilling to abandon all hopes, and still trusting to negotia- 
tions with the Russian Court. At last he reluctantly com- 
menced his retreat on the 19th of October, harassed by 
almost incessant attacks of the Russians. To add to his dis- 
asters, as if by a just judgment of God for his former impious 
bulletins, the winter set in earlier, and with much greater 
rigour than usual ; whole corps of their troops, famished by 
hunger, and benumbed with cold, surrendered without resist- 
ance ; and the loss of horses was so great that almost the 
whole of their cavalry was dismounted, and their artillery 



286 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

abandoned. The road was covered with the bodies of men 
and horses, dead through hunger, or frozen by the extreme 
cold. The loss of the French by capture, up to the 26th 
of December, was, according to the Russian bulletin, forty- 
one generals, 1,298 officers, and 167,000 privates, with 1, 131 
pieces of artillery. Buonaparte, on his arrival at Wilna with 
the small remains of his army, suddenly quitted them, and 
proceeded in disguise to Paris. 

The disasters of the Russian campaign obliged Buonaparte 
to draw many of his troops from Spain, and in consequence 
Lord Wellington, in May 1813, found himself enabled to 
advance against King Joseph, who, after having abandoned 
Madrid, and destroyed the works at Burgos, had taken a 
position in front of Vittoria. On the 21st of June Lord 
Wellington, who had closely pursued the French, com- 
menced an attack, which was followed by one of the most 
complete victories gained during the war. All their artillery, 
baggage, and ammunition waggons, together with their mili- 
tary chest, fell into the hands of the conquerors. St. Sebas- 
tian, in the mean time, surrendered to Sir Thomas Graham, 
after a desperate resistance, in which the loss was very great 
on each side. 

On the 7th of October, Lord Wellington entered France, 
and attacked Marshal Soult, who had for some time succeeded 
to the command of the French army. The enemy was 
obliged to retreat, and withdraw to a fortified camp near 
Bayonne. 

In the mean time, the French continued to retire from 
before the Russians, who were now joined by Prussia and 
Austria. Buonaparte, who had made astonishing efforts to 
repair his losses, set out from Paris, to make head against 
the Allies. An action was fought on the 2d of May, near 
the plains of Lutzen, which ended in the retreat of the 
French to Dresden, where Buonaparte was joined by the 
Elector of Saxony. 

During these transactions England had made a treaty with 
Sweden, who, in consideration of a subsidy from England 
of one million sterling, engaged to furnish 30,000 men, to 
act under Bernadotte, who had been made Crown Prince. 

Buonaparte, sensible of his difficulties, ancj that the tide 
of success was turning against him, made overtures for an 
armistice, winch were accepted ; but led to no pacific result. 
Hostilities recommenced ; the French were compelled to 
withdraw' into Dresden, which for some months had employed 



THfc HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 287 

their engineers in adding to its fortifications : and now, with 
,the addition of 130,000 French, with Buonaparte at their 
head, seemed impregnable. The assault was made ; but 
though the Allies behaved with the greatest bravery, they 
were repulsed, and the next day Buonaparte marched out 
with an immense artillery to attack in his turn. After a tre- 
mendous conflict, the Allies were obliged to retreat, closely 
followed by Buonaparte, who, however, received a severe 
check in the defeat of the French General Vandamme, 
who surrendered with 10,000 men. The Allies now again 
advanced, and obliged Buonaparte to measure back his steps, 
after sustaining several severe losses, till he reached Leipsic, 
where he concentrated his forces to the amount of 180,000 
men. 

On the 18th of October was fought the celebrated battle 
of Leipsic, in which the French lost the immense number 
of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Leipsic 
was taken the next morning, together with the King of 
Saxon}' , the French garrison, and rear guard of 30,000 men, 
the sick and wounded reckoned at 22,000, with all the artil- 
lery, stores, and magazines. Buonaparte himself narrowly 
escaped, having fled from the city only two hours before its 
capture. In this battle an English rocket brigade greatly 
distinguished itself. 

As Buonaparte had made no provision for a retreat, the 
French troops scattered themselves in all directions, and 
were taken prisoners in great numbers. Large garrisons, 
which had been left in various fortified cities in Germany, 
were obliged to surrender, particularly at Dresden, where 
Marshal St. Cyr, with 40,000 of his men, worn down by 
fatigue and hunger, submitted to the Russians. 

These apparently irretrievable disasters animated the 
Dutch to throw off their subjection to Buonaparte: they 
arose in a body, dismissed the French authorities, and 
recalled the Prince of Orange from England. 

In America, the Congress still entertained hopes of the 
conquest of Canada, notwithstanding their former ill success. 
In January, they sent General Winchester with 1,000 troops 
to attack Fort Detroit: but he was defeated by Colonel 
Proctor, and taken prisoner with 500 of his men. York, in 
Upper Canada, was attacked by the Americans, supported 
by a flotilla, and evacuated by the English. The Canadian 
Lakes now became the chief theatre of war, and many spi- 
rited actions took place on their shores and waters ; but the 



%88 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

repeated successes of the American flotilla, obliged the. 
English ultirnately to abandon all their posts in Upper 
-Canada. 

A grand effort was now made by the Americans for the 
conquest of Canada. Two armies, under Generals Hampton 
and Wilkinson, the latter with 10,000 men, proceeded to 
the attack of Montreal. By the admirable conduct of Sir 
George Prevost and Sir R. Sheaffe, their plans were entirely 
defeated, and both the Canadas were again freed from their 
enemies. 

At sea, an action was fought between the Shannon, a 
British frigate, commanded by Captain Broke, and the 
United States frigate Chesapeake, of 44 guns. Captain Broke, 
perceiving her weight of metal, seized a favourable oppor- 
tunity of boarding, and after a short but severe action of ten 
minutes, carried her within sight of the people of Boston. 

The year 1814 opened with the advance of the allied 
troops towards Paris, in the course of which they sustained 
repeated attacks from Buonaparte, who disputed every inch 
of ground with consummate skill. Notwithstanding all his 
efforts, the Allies continued progressively to advance, till at 
last, after various attempts at negotiations by Buonaparte, in 
order to gain time to bring up his numerous garrisons, he, in 
a fit of desperation, threw himself into the rear of the 
Allies, hoping to cut off their communication, and stop their 
supplies. The Allies, however, seized the opportunity, 
joined their forces, and marched with 200,000 men directly 
to Paris. 

Whilst these transactions were going on in the North, 
Lord Wellington, amidst great obstacles, and in face of a 
large army commanded by Soult, continued to advance into 
France, and by a revolutionary movement in Bourdeaux, 
was enabled to occupy that large city with a detachment of 
his army, commanded by Marshal Beresford ; whilst he pro- 
ceeded to attack Soult, who had retreated to Thoulouse. 

The Allies had now arrived in the vicinity of Paris, into 
w T hich Marshals Mortier and Marmont had thrown them- 
selves. On the 30th of March, Joseph Buonaparte, who 
had been constituted Buonaparte's lieutenant-general during 
his absence, took a position on the heights around Paris, pro- 
tected by redoubts and artillery all along his line. The 
French were, however, driven from their position, and Paris 
capitulated. On the 1st of April, a Provisional Government 
Vas formed ; and the next day a decree was passed by the 



i 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 289 

senate, declaring that Buonaparte had forfeited the throne, 
and that the hereditary right of his family was abolished. 

Buonaparte, on finding the Allies had marched toward 
Paris, made a rapid movement to defend the capital ; but 
finding it already occupied by the Allies, he withdrew to 
Fontainbleau, whence he sent to the senate, offering to abdi- 
cate in favour of his son. His proposal being rejected, he 
was obliged to submit, and signed a formal renunciation of 
the crowns of France and Italy, for himself and his heirs. 
On the 1 1th a treaty was made, by which he had the island 
of Elba in full sovereignty, with a pension of two millions 
of francs ; whilst Maria Louisa, his wife, daughter of the 
Emperor of Germany, had the duchies of Parma, Placentia, 
and Guastalla. Pensions were also bestowed on the various 
branches of his family. 

The war in the South was not, how T ever, entirely finished, 
owing to the tardy arrival of the messengers sent from Paris 
to Soult, who is generally believed to have been himself the 
author of the delay. A sanguinary battle was the conse- 
quence, in which, though the Allies were completely victo- 
rious, they lost 4,000 men. At last advices arrived in all 
parts from Paris, and a stop was put to the further effusion 
of blood. 

On the 24th of April the King of France left England, 
under convoy of the Duke of Clarence, and landed at 
Calais. On the 3d of May he made his entry into Paris, 
and on the 30th peace was proclaimed between France and 
all the Allied Powers. By this treaty France was to retain 
her ancient boundaries, and receive some few augmentations 
on the side of the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. Malta 
to remain in possession of England. All the colonies, &c. 
belonging to France, to be restored to her, with the excep- 
tion of the islands of Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius, and 
Bourbon. France not to erect any fortifications in that part 
of India restored to her. The German States and Switzer- 
land to remain independent. The dominions of the Pope 
and other Italian States to be restored. France to join with 
England in mutual efforts for the abolition of the Slave 
Trade. Holland was erected, subsequently, into a kingdom, 
with the Netherlands annexed, which formerly belonged to 
the House of Austria. Hanover also acquired the title of a 
kingdom. Murat was allowed to retain the kingdom of 
Naples, in consequence of having abandoned the interests 
of his brother-in-law, Buonaparte, and acted against the 

25 



£90 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

French in Italy, in co-operation with the Austrians. Eng- 
land, by an excess of generosity to Fiance, remitted the 
whole balance in her favour for the maintenance of the 
French prisoners, to an immense amount ; in consideration 
of which, France was to restore all the seizures of property, 
colleges, Sec. &c. belonging to British subjects in France; 
which article, however, she has not yet performed. 

Such are the principal articles of a treaty, which afforded 
ample proof of the extreme moderation of the Allies, whose 
armies soon after quitted Fiance. 

The war in America continued with unabated vigour ; 
nearly the whole coast was blockaded by British squadrons. 
A plan was formed for an attack on Washington, the capital 
of the United States. A strong body of forces, under Gene- 
ral Ross, disembarked on the 20th of August, and began 
their march. On the 24th they arrived within two leagues 
of that city, and found a body of 9,000 Americans strongly 
posted to defend it. They were immediately attacked and 
defeated, and the same evening the British entered Wash- 
ington, and burnt all the public buildings, with the dock- 
yard, and a frigate and sloop of war. Private property was 
respected, and on the 30th the army re-embarked. Fort 
Washington was taken in the same manner. A plan was 
next concerted between General Ross and Admiral Coch- 
rane against the city of Baltimore : but General Ross being 
mortally wounded in the advance, and the Americans greatly 
outnumbering the British troops, it was thought expedient to 
retreat, and they re-embarked without molestation. 

On the Canadian lakes and northern frontier of the Ame- 
rican States, success had varied : but at Plattsburg, a fortifi- 
cation on Lake Champlain, a desperate conflict ensued 
between the two fleets, which ended in the capture of the 
whole British flotilla : and, in consequence, General Prevost 
was obliged to withdraw from the American territories, leav- 
ing his sick and wounded in the hands of the Americans. 

The inutility of the war was now sufficiently apparent to 
the Americans ; who also perceived, that the pacification of 
Europe would leave the British ministry free to direct their 
entire force against them. Peace was therefore concluded; 
both nations agreeing also to continue their endeavours to 
abolish totally the Slave Trade. 

1815. — In Europe, tranquillity" was far from being firmly 
established. The French soldiers, from the general to the 
private, had been too long accustomed to plunder and licen- 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 291 

tiousness, to remain satisfied under a monarch, whose very 
existence in a manner depended on peace ; and who, more- 
over, had been forced upon them by the Allies. Buonaparte 
also, whose vicinity to the French territory in the Mediter- 
ranean gave him constant "opportunities of communication 
With the disaffected, failed not, by his partizans, to take 
advantage of the general feeling. Having sufficiently pre- 
pared their minds, and matured his plans, on the 1st of 
March he landed in Provence, with about 1,000 men, and 
at Grenoble was joined by the garrison of that city. Thence 
he marched to Lyons, where he was welcomed with general 
acclamations, and resumed his title of Emperor of the 
French. 

Immediately on the news of his landing, Louis ordered 
the army to assemble, which he put under the command of 
Marshal Ney, who had voluntarily offered himself, and 
solemnly promised to bring Buonaparte dead or alive to the 
capital. This promise he certainly fulfilled, but in a manner 
very different from what the King of France, by this deep 
hypocrisy of his general, had been induced to believe. No 
sooner had Buonaparte advanced to Auxerre, than Ney pub- 
lished a proclamation, declaring that Buonaparte was about 
to re-ascend the throne, and immediately joined him with 
all his army. Louis, finding the universal defection of the 
troops, immediatelv quitted Paris, and on the 20th Buona- 
parte entered in triumph, without having fired a musket 
from the time of his landing. 

This event caused the greatest sensation throughout' 
Europe. The Allied Powers immediately assembled in 
congress, and published a manifesto, declaring that Buona- 
parte, by breaking the convention, had put himself out of 
the pale of civilized nations, and engaging not to lay down 
their arms until he should be deprived of the power of ever 
again disturbing the world. 

Large reinforcements were immediately sent to the British 
army in the Netherlands, and the Duke of Wellington 
shortly after arrived to take the supreme command of the 
British and foreign troops in Belgium. At the same time a 
Prussian army, commanded by Marshal Blucher, assembled 
in the neighbourhood of Namur. 

In the mean time Buonaparte, fully sensible that upon the 
is-ue of this contest depended his throne, and perhaps I113 
life, made astonishing efforts to complete his army, and in- 
spire them with confidence. Early in June he left Paris- X 



29-2 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

determined to give battle to the English and Prussian armies 
before the arrival of the Russians and Austrians. On the 
15th he attacked the Prussian posts on the Sambre, and car- 
ried them. He then continued his advance towards Brus- 
sels, driving a body of Belgians before him to Quatre Bras. 
Owing to some mistake in the conveyance of the intelligence, 
the Duke of Wellington did not receive it till late in the 
evening. He instantly ordered the advance of the troops to 
the scene of action. On the 10th Blucher was attacked, 
and, after an obstinate resistance, obliged to retreat, with the 
loss of 15,000 men ; and the Duke of Wellington, who was 
marching to his assistance, was in his turn attacked by 
Marshal Ney. All the efforts of the French here were, 
however, fruitless; their repeated charges were repelled, 
and the English remained masters of the field, though they 
lost the Duke of Brunswick, who was killed during the 
action. 

Blucher, after the battle of the 16th, had been obliged to 
fall back upon Wavre, and this movement made a corres- 
ponding one necessary on the part of the British ; who the 
next morning, took a strong position near Waterloo, on the 
road to Brussels, having in front the farm of La Haye Sainte 
and the castle of Houguemont, and on their left the defiles 
of St. Lambert, by which they kept up a distant communi- 
cation with the Prussians. 

On the 18th commenced the battle which was to hurl 
Buonaparte from his throne, and restore peace to the world. 
At ten o'clock the French commenced the action by a furi- 
ous attack on the British posted at Houguemont, which con- 
tinued at intervals through the whole of the day ; the Eng* 
lish constantly repelling their assailants, without attempting 
to pursue them. A tremendous cannonade at the same time 
was kept up by the French along the whole of their line, 
w T ith incessant charges of their infantry and cavalry. Towards 
evening the Prussians were descried defiling from the roads 
on the left of the British, which gave fresh animation to the 
troops, almost exhausted by the repeated and sanguinary at- 
tacks of the French, who when repulsed they had not been 
allowed to pursue. 

Buonaparte, upon being convinced that the Prussians were 
now upon the point of forming a junction with the British, 
made one last and desperate effort along the whole line. The 
English troops stood firm; the French were again repulsed, 
and Wellington seizing the moment, gave orders for a 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 293 

general advance, amidst the cheers of the soldiers. In an 
instant the French were broken and dispersed, leaving on 
the field 150 pieces of cannon, and all their ammunition. 
The British, too much exhausted to pursue with vigour, gave 
up that task to the Prussians, who had just joined, and who 
performed it with unabated ardour. Such was the issue of the 
memorable battle of Waterloo, in which the British com- 
mander shewed consummate skill, and the troops the most 
unparalleled bravery. The loss of the British and Hanove- 
rians was about 13,000, but not more than 40,000 of the 
French survived the defeat and pursuit. Buonaparte fled to 
Paris, where finding his power entirely at an end, he signed 
his abdication and withdrew to Rochefort, in hopes of being 
able to escape to America. That port was, however, too 
closely blockaded by British cruisers, and finding all his 
attempts ineffectual, he determined to throw himself upon 
British protection. On the 15th of July, he went with his 
baggage and a few attendants, and gave himself up to Cap- 
tain Maitland, of the Bellerophon. It was immediately de- 
termined to send him to the island of St. Helena, as a place 
where he could be kept in perfect security, without too much 
confinement or restraint. 

Murat, his brother-in-law, the usurping king of Naples, 
had no sooner heard of the advance of Buonaparte to Paris, 
than, forgetting his promises to the Allies, he put himself 
at the head of his troops, declaring the cause of Buonaparte 
was his own. He was however soon overpowered, and Fer- 
dinand, the rightful king, reinstated in his dominions. 

Murat escaped to Corsica : but attempting a landing on the 
Neapolitan coast, he was surrounded by the armed peasantry, 
who killed or took his whole party. Murat himself was made 
prisoner, tried by a military commission, and sentenced to be 
shot : which sentence was carried into execution on the 15th 
of October. 

In the mean time, the British and Prussian troops had en- 
tered Paris by capitulation, and on the 8th of July, Loui3 
XVIII. re-ascended the throne of France, and the Bourbon 
government was restored. 

The signature of peace between England and America 
could not be made known time enough to prevent a very 
sanguinary action which took place in an attack by the 
British upon New Orleans, in which they were defeated with 
great loss. An action at sea, in which the British frigate 
Endymion, in conjunction with several other vessels, cap~ 

25* 



294 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK^ 

tured the American ship the President, Commodore Decatur, 
closed the war, the news of the treaty of peace arriving 
immediately after. 

In India, a war had commenced against the states of 
Nepaul respecting their boundaries, which was finished by 
the surrender of the whole tract in dispute to the British. 

In Ceylon, a revolution took place in the dominions of the 
King of Candia, who had long carried on war against the 
English borders, and had exercised the most atrocious cruel- 
ties over his own subjects. Lieutenant-General Brownrigg 
marched to the assistance of the depressed natives, and being 
joined by almost all the principal men, proceeded to the 
capital, whence the king fled with a small number of his 
adherents, but was pursued and made prisoner by his own 
subjects. A convention of the nobles was called, who de- 
clared the king unworthy to reign, and offered the govern- 
ment to the English, by which the whole of that important 
island came into the possession of Great Britain. 

On the 20th of November, treaties were signed b} r the 
Allied Powers and France, in which it was agreed, that some 
cessions of territory should be made by France ; that about 
30,000,000 pounds sterling should be paid to the Allies at 
different periods ; that, as a security against any further rev- 
olutionary movements on the part of the French, seventeen 
of their frontier towns should be occupied by the Allied 
troops for five years. 

1816. — The' general tranquillity of Europe was now re-es- 
tablished ; but during a war, which had demanded the whole 
power of Europe, the ferocious depredations of the piratical 
states of Barbary had been permitted to exercise their cruel- 
ties, and plunder the weaker states with impunity. Great 
Britain now undertook to wipe away this disgrace, and pro- 
cure the abolition of Christian slavery. The result of the 
contest was no less glorious, than the principles with which 
she was actuated were noble. The States of Tripoli and 
Tunis were intimidated, and bound themselves never in future 
to make slaves of their prisoners of war ; but the Dey of 
Algiers refused all stipulations, imprisoned the English consul, 
and massacred the crews of some Italian vessels. Lord 
Exmouth, with a British fleet of five sail of the line, with five 
frigates and some smaller vessels, joined by a Dutch squad- 
ron of five frigates, sailed from Gibraltar to chastis3 the un- 
principled barbarian, who confided in the great strength of 
tus position and fortifications. The action was long and 



THE HOUSE OF BR< KSWICK. 295 

obstinate : but nothing could withstand the heroism of British 
seamen ; the immense Algerine batteries were destroyed ; 
nearly the whole of their navy, together with their military 
stores and arsenal, were consumed by fire, and an immense 
slaughter made of their men. The next day the Dey accept- 
ed the conditions imposed upon him, which were to abolish 
Christian slavery for ever, to deliver up to the British admiral 
all slaves, of whatsoever nation, immediately, together with 
all the money received for the redemption of slaves, during 
that year, and pardon to be asked of the British consul by 
the Dey, in the presence of some British officers, for the insult 
offered him. 

The captives thus rescued, were conveyed at the expense 
of Britain to their respective countries, and the ransoms recov- 
ered transmitted to their governments untouched by the 
captors. Such was the result of the noble service performed 
by Great Britain to Christendom, without reimbursement, or 
any other advantage but the glory resulting from so benevo- 
lent an undertaking ; a glory, pure and unmixed, in which 
both religion and humanity may rejoice. 

In November 1818, the Plenipotentiaries of Austria, Great 
Britain, and Prussia, assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle, and ad- 
dressed to the French minister a notification, that as order and 
tranquillity appeared to be firmly established in France, they 
had ordered their respective troops to quit the French terri- 
tories : which notification was acted upon without delay, to 
the great joy of the French people. Such was the happy 
termination of the most tremendous conflict the world ever 
saw, achieved principally by the unconquerable spirit and 
unfailing resources of the British nation, during the reign of 
George III. ; a monarch who, although in the latter years of 
his life deeply secluded by an unfortunate malady from taking 
an active part in public affairs, still reigned not only in the 
hearts of his subjects, who greatly venerated his simplicity 
of manners, his probity, and other domestic virtues, but also, 
by directing through his ministers, who were originally of 
his appointment, the destinies of Europe, by the system of 
policy he had early adopted and resolutely persevered in, 
amidst the greatest difficulties and most trying occasions. 

In the evening of the 29th of January 1820, died this 
venerated monarch, in the eighty-second year of his age, 
and sixtieth of his reign. 



296 THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

Cotemporary Princes. 

POPES. 

Pius VII 1800 | Leo XII 1823 

EMPEROR of r.KU.MAM. 
Francis II 1792 

EMPERORS OF RUSSIA. 

Alexander 1801 1 Nicholas 1825 

EMPEROR OF THE TUIIKS. 

Mahmoud II 1S08 

KINGS OF FRANCE. 

Louis XVIII 1814J Charles X 1824 

KING OF SPAIN. 

Ferdinand VII 1S08 

KING AND Q.UEEN OF PORTUGAL. 

John VI 1820 I Donna Maria 182$ 

KING OF DENMARK. 

Frederic VI 1808 

KING OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 

Charles XIV . 1818 

KING OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederic IV 1797 

KING OF BAVARIA. 

Louis Charles Augustus 1825 

KING OF HANOTER. 

George IV 1820 

KINO OF W1RTEMBURG. 

Frederic William 1S16 

KING OF SAXONY. 

Anthony Clement 1827 

KING OF SARDINIA. 

Charles Felix 1821 

KING OF THE NETHERLANDS. 

William 1813 

KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 

Ferdinand I. . 1S.M> Francis 1825 



1S20. — George IK, reigned 10 Yea?s, 6 Mont /is. 

The date of the reign of George IV. is rather in name than 
in fact. He was publicly proclaimed on the 31st of January. 
England, exhausted by her late gigantic struggle, was enjoy- 
ing some repose, when news arrived from the African settle- 
ment of Sierra Leone, that grave of Englishmen, of an attack 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 29? 

made by the Ashantees upon the colony, and the defeat and 
massacre of Sir C. M'Carthy, the governor; but his death 
was subsequently avenged, and those savage warriors were 
reduced to submission. 

In the East, the Burmese, who inhabit an extensive empire 
east of the Ganges, had made an irruption into the territories 
of the East-India Company; but they were defeated with 
great slaughter in several brave actions, their strong fortifica- 
tions taken, and their own country completely placed at the 
mercy of their conquerors. Peace, however, was granted 
them upon terms which tended greatly to increase the security 
of our possessions in that quarter. 

In Europe, the sovereigns who had so bitterly felt the 
effects of Jacobinical principles, had entered into a. league 
called the Holy Alliance, to check the progress of re vol u- 
tionaiy opinions. A congress was held for that purpose at 
Verona, where a resolution was taken to overturn the recent- 
ly adopted constitution of Spain, and restore the ancient 
absolute monarchy. England was applied to, to sanction 
those proceedings; but the Duke of Wellington, who had 
been sent to the congress to treat of the destinies of Greece, 
upon being informed by the French ministry that the affairs 
of Spain would also come under discussion, received instruc- 
tions from Mr. Canning to refuse any acquiescence in the 
design, and to state the determination of the Government to 
remain neutral. 

Earl)' - in the year 1824, the Duke d'Angouleme, at the 
head of a powerful army, which had been some time collecting 
on the frontiers of Spain, under pretence of being a sanitory 
cordon against the yellow {evev, which then depopulated 
Spain, entered that country, and soon forced the Spaniards, 
unprepared for resistance, to an" unqualified submission. 

The feelings of many in England were greatly excited by 
this interference : but even had the ministry been inclined, 
the country was too much exhausted to attempt any effectual 
resistance. 

In 1826, the state of Portugal, our old ally, caused much 
anxiety to the government. John VI., who died on the l()th 
of March, had appointed his daughter, the Infanta Isabella. 
Regent of Portugal, in the name of his eldest son Don Pedro, 
Emperor of the Brazils. The constitution of the Brazils 
obliged him to make his election between the two crowns. 
Preferring that of Brazil. Don Pedro abdicated the throne of 
Portugal in 'favour of his daughter Donna Maria, having 



298 THE MOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

previously framed a constitution for the Portuguese., which 
he transmitted by the hands of the British minister, together 
with the act of his abdication : and to prevent anj>- commo- 
tion in Portugal from the party of Don Miguel his brother, 
he directed that his daughter should marry Don Miguel. A 
strong party, however, aided b}' the secret influence of France 
and Spain, determined to make Don Miguel an absolute 
monarch, and prevailed upon some Portuguese regiments to 
desert into Spain, where they proclaimed and swore allegi- 
ance to Don Miguel, and were secretly supported by the 
Spanish authorities. Under these circumstances, application 
was made to England for assistance, on the faith of ancient 
treaties and alliances; and accordingly, in December, mes- 
sages were brought down to both Houses of Parliament, 
reciting the proceedings of the Spanish government, and 
calling upon Parliament to maintain the faith of treaties 
towards Portugal, its oldest ally. The address moved upon 
the occasion was carried on the l*2th of December with 
only four dissentient voices, and with a promptitude tha 
excited the admiration of Europe. The first detachment of 
British troops anchored in the Tagus on the 25th of the same 
month. This expedition speedily effected its object, and the 
independence and constitution of Portugal were for that time 
delivered. 

The European powders had long looked with an anxious 
eye towards Greece. The barbarian atrocities c-f the Turks 
in that unfortunate countiy shocked and scandalized christian 
Europe. The remonstrances of her ambassadors at Constan- 
tinople proving of no avail, Mr. Canning proposed a combined 
mediation by England, France, and Russia; and in July 
1827, was signed at London a treaty for an armed mediation 
between the Greeks and Turks, by the English, French, and 
Russian ministers. In consequence of this, the allied squad- 
rons were sent to the Levant and Archipelago, in order to 
give effect to the treaty; but the Turkish Divan remained 
obstinately deaf to the representations of the allied powers, 
and Ibrahim, the Turkish admiral, continuing his atrocities 
"n the Morea, the allied fleets, under the command of Sir 
Edward Codrington, sailed into the harbour of Navarino, 
where they blocked up the combined fleets of Turkey and 
Egypt, in order to intimidate them into submission. A bat- 
tle seemed inevitable, yet each side professed to have no 
hostile intention. A shot fired by a Turkisli vessel, said 
to be accidental, was the signal for a general engagement. 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 299 

and after four hours' fighting, with comparatively small loss 
to the allies, the bay was covered with the wrecks of 
the Turkish and Egyptian fleets. This brilliant action vir- 
tually achieved the independence of Greece, which was 
further secured by the arrival of a small military force from 
France. 

In Portugal affairs wore an aspect anything but favourable 
to the constitutionalists. It had been hoped that foreign travel 
and advice had changed entirely Don Miguel's sentiments, 
and he was accordingly named Regent instead of his sister; 
but immediately upon the departure of the English troops 
he seized the crown, in defiance of the claims of his niece, 
abrogated the constitution, and proclaimed himself absolute. 
In the mean time Don Pedro had sent his daughter the young 
Queen with a retinue to Europe, but on her touching at 
Gibraltar she became acquainted with the unfavourable oc- 
currences in Portugal, and she was advised to proceed to 
England, where she was received with royal honours; but 
finding no present prospect of overthrowing Don Miguel, 
she returned to her father's court at Rio de Janeiro. 

In the mean time death had been making great altc rations 
;rin the government at home. On the 5th of January 1827, 
died his Royal Highness the Duke of York, the brother of his 
Majesty ; and on the 17th of February the Earl of Liverpool 
was seized by an apoplectic fit, from which he never recover- 
ed. He was succeeded by Mr. Canning, whose constitution, 
already enfeebled by disease, proved too weak for the fatigues, 
anxieties, and mortifications of office, to which he fell a vic- 
tim the 8th of Au rust of the same year. Nor did the inex- 
orable hand of death spare even royalty itself: the King 
during the two last years had had frequent attacks of gout 
tending to inflammation, oppressed breathing, and great de- 
pression. In the beginning of the year 1830 his illness 
became serious, though it was studiously concealed from the 
public : but about the middle of April his state was such that 
>ulletins of his health were periodically issued. These an- 
nouncements were any thing but clear or satisfactory. At 
one period he was declared convalescent, and by his own 
orders the bulletins were discontinued, contrary to the judg- 
ment of his physicians : such was the tenacity with which 
he clung to life. Bui his disease, an ossification of the heart, 
baffled all medical skill : he was seized with a fit of couching, 
burst a blood-vessel, and expired at three o'clock on the morn- 
ing of the 23th of June. His remains were deposited in the 



300 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFA7RS. 

royal vault at Windsor, on the 16th of July, with the cus- 
tomary solemnities. 



CHAPTER II. 

Ecclesiastical Jljfairs. 

As the revolution of 1688 took place in consequence of 
the attempt of James II. to re-introduce the Catholic religion, 
it was impossible that its professors should not grieve at his 
ill success and consequent misfortunes, and have reason to 
apprehend much persecution from his successor. But Wil- 
liam was too good a politician to be inclined to violence. He 
had, moreover, been bred a Calvinist ; and finding the estab- 
lished clergy but little disposed towards him, he openly 
espoused the cause of the Dissenters. Catholics, among the 
rest, at first experienced the lenity of his government : for 
though the laws against them remained unrepealed, they 
were seldom executed with rigour. Subsequently, however, 
at the instigation of the Dissenters, whom he wished to please, 
a very severe act was passed, by which priests and Catholic 
schoolmasters were sentenced to banishment, and a reward 
of £100 offered for their apprehension. By another clause, 
Catholic? born after the 25th of March 1701), were prevent- 
ed from inheriting any estate or purchasing land. They 
were, moreover burthened with the payment of double taxes, 
and seizure of their horses. It is acknowledged by Bishop 
Burnet, who had a hand in passing this bill, that both the 
government and the opposition detested the measure, and 
that each party had loaded it with severe clauses, in hopes 
of its being rejected by the other, and thus losing their pop- 
ularity. 

Under Queen Anne, Catholics, although subject to the 
restraints of former laws, lived unmolested. They were too 
much depressed to cause any fear to her government, which 
now seemed weary of persecution; and their attachment to 
her family, in the person of her brother James, could not in 
reality be displeasing to her. 

At the commencement of the reign of George I. some 
attempts were made to introduce a more tolerant system: 
which were not successful, owing to the jealousy of the dif- 
ferent sects, and the disagreement of the Catholics amon^ 
themselves. 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 301 

The rebellion in 1745 called up the former animosity of 
the nation : which, however, on the extinction of the hopes 
of the Pretender, gradually subsided, and Catholics lived in 
comparative tranquillity during the remainder of the reign 
of George II., notwithstanding they were sometimes molest- 
ed by informers, and continued subject to the constructive 
recusancy act, by which the oaths of supremacy, and abju- 
ration of the Stuarts, were allowed to be tendered at the mere 
will of two justices of the peace, without any previous notice 
or information. 

During the first part of the reign of his late majesty George 
III., attempts were made to carry into execution the penal 
laws against Catholics. Bishop Talbot, uncle to the late 
Earl of Shrewsbury, was tried for his life at the Old Bailey 
for saying mass, and only escaped conviction from want of 
evidence. Other priests were prosecuted and imprisoned, and, 
in some instances, the statutes which deprived Catholics of 
their landed property were enforced. 

The period at length arrived when, no longer in fear of 
any invasion in favour of the Stuarts, and convinced of the 
unshaken loyalty of the oppressed Catholics, the Govern- 
ment adopted more liberal and enlightened measures. For 
this purpose a bill was brought into Parliament in 1778, by 
Sir George Saville, for the repeal of certain penalties and 
disabilities, including the punishment of officiating priests 
as felons or traitors ; the forfeiture of Catholic heirs educated 
abroad ; the power given to a son or near relation, being a 
Protestant, to take possession of a father's or other relation's 
estate ; and the depriving them of the power of acquiring 
landed property by purchase. Although the liberality of 
the times had, in some measure, previously mitigated the 
rigour of these cruel provisions, yet it was justly observed, 
that the continuance of laws which encouraged an unnatural 
child to deprive his parent of his possessions was so disgrace- 
ful and oppressive, as to excite the detestation and astonish- 
ment of all Europe. The motion was received with universal 
approbation, and the bill was passed into a law without oppo- 
sition. 

The passing of this bill induced some persons in Scotland 
to form a design of proposing its extension to that country in 
the ensuing session of Parliament. To this they were more- 
over encouraged by the consideration, that in the General 
Assembly, sitting at the time the act was first in agitation, a 
motion for remonstrating against it was rejected by a major- 

20 



802 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

ity of upwards of a hundred voices. Notwithstanding this 
appearance of moderation, a spirit of intolerance and jeal- 
ousy was again rising, which, fostered by the circulation of 
virulent and calumnious pamphlets, soon displayed its effects 
in some of the provincial synods, where resolutions were 
passed expressing a determination to resist every attempt for 
the relief of Catholics. At the same time, some incendiary 
bigots, chiefly of the lowest class, in Edinburgh and Glasgow, 
formed an association for the like purpose, which assumed 
the appellation of " Friends of the Protestant Interest." 
These persons, by their activity in diffusing pamphlets, 
hand-bills, and letters in the newspapers, kindled such a 
flame through the country, that it was thought advisable 
to relinquish the intention of applying for the bill. Fanat- 
icism, however, was not thus to be appeased : letters were 
dropt in the streets of Edinburgh, calling upon the people 
to pull down *' a Pillar of Popery," lately erected. A mob, 
in consequence, assembling, attacked a building occupied by 
the Catholic Bishop, which they pillaged and set on fire. 
They next proceeded to the Catholic chapel, the inside of 
which and of the house, together with the furniture, was 
demolished, and a considerable library belonging to the 
bishop was either destroyed or stolen. The rioters, embold- 
ened by the absence of all energy and opposition on the 
part of the magistrates, attacked the houses of several Catho- 
lic tradesmen, whose property they served in like manner. 

These disorders, to the disgrace of the police, continued 
several days unchecked ; but when the rioters carried their 
designs further, and proceeded to attack the houses of Prin- 
cipal Robertson and Mr. Crosbie, an eminent advocate, 
whom they considered as promoters of the intended bill, 
some dragoons were called in to the protection of the city, 
and peace was at length restored, though not before a proc- 
lamation was issued by the Lord Provost, in which he took 
upon himself to assure the " well-meaning" people, that no 
repeal of the penal statutes against the Scotch Catholics 
should take place. 

Similar riots occurred at Glasgow, where the house and 
manufactory of an eminent potter, a Catholic, were destroyed; 
but the prompt exertions of the magistrates and principal 
inhabitants soon restored order. 

JJhese disturbances, however, were but a prelude to those 
that took place in 1780, in London, which became the scene 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIJEB. 303 

of riots the most disgraceful to its police, and dangerous to 
its safety. 

At the head of the Scotch associations against any relaxa- 
tions of the penal laws respecting Catholics was Lord George 
Gordon, brother to the Duke of that name : a man whose 
character was compounded of enthusiasm, folly, and cun- 
ning. Chiefly through his proceedings, the same fanatical 
spirit was roused in London ; where, as early as January 
1780, a deputation from a body calling themselves the Pro- 
testant Association, of which he was the patron, waited upon 
Lord North, to request he would present a petition to Par- 
liament against the law that had been passed in favour of 
the Catholics, which his Lordship positively refused to do. 

During the subsequent session of Parliament, Lord George 
Gordon, who was a member of the House of Commons, 
frequently interrupted the business by speeches on religion, 
and the dangers of popery, and by dividing the house on 
questions, on which he almost always stood alone. His 
manners ?nd dress were as singular as his language ; but he 
was rather a subject of amusement to the house than of 
serious apprehension. 

In the meanwhile, the association was secretly increasing 
its members, till on the 29th of May, at a meeting called by 
public advertisement, at Coachmaker's Hall, Lord George 
Gordon took the chair, and made a most inflammatory 
harangue, in which he asserted the dangers of the rapid 
increase of popery, and concluded with moving that the 
whole body of the Protestant Association should, on the next 
Friday, accompany him to the House of Commons, to 
present their petition, declaring at the same time that he 
would not deliver it if attended by fewer than 20,000 per- 
sons, wearing in their hats blue cockades. 

On the Sid of June the associators, marshalled in four 
divisions, proceeded in great order to the Houses of Parlia- 
ment; but they soon inflamed each other, and committed 
violent outrages on the persons of such members of both 
houses as came in their way, particularly those who were 
regarded as promoters of the obnoxious bill. Upon the 
motion of Lord George Gordon to have the petition admitted 
some debate ensued, during which he often went out to 
inform the mob of what was passing, and who were the 
principal opposers of their cause. His motion was rejected 
by 19;} to six. After much time spent in confusion and 
alarm, a party of soldiers arrived, with a magistrate at their 



301 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

head, who assured the mob that if they would disperse the 
soldiers should be ordered away. Upon this they retired 
from the vicinity of the Parliament House; but it was for 
the purpose of destroying the Catholic chapel in Duke 
Street, Lincoln's-Inn Fields, belonging to the Sardinian ambas- 
sador, and the Bavarian chapel in Warwick Street, Golden 
Square, which they effected without opposition. The fol- 
lowing day the tumult appeared to have nearly subsided ; 
but this claim was but a prelude to a more furious storm. 
For the particulars of those widely extended scenes of 
destruction, caused by all the dregs of the metropolis, fired 
by a blind and indiscriminate rage for devastation and plun- 
der, the periodical publications of the time afford ample 
information : it will be sufficient here to relate, that several 
chapels belonging to Catholics, together with many of their 
houses, and those of persons supposed to be their friends, 
were burnt or pillaged. On the 7th these disorders were at 
their height : no fewer than thirty-six fires were seen blaz- 
ing at one time in different parts of the town, and two 
attempts were made to force the Bank. 

It was now high time to think of saving the capital itself 
from utter ruin, and even the whole frame of the Govern- 
ment from dissolution. Hitherto the magistrates of London 
and Westminster, and even the Government, had shewn 
great supineness and timidity ; but the King himself now 
began to act : troops w T ere ordered from all quarters, with 
directions that they should not wait for the civil magistrate, 
but use their arms wherever the rioters appeared. This order 
was effectually obeyed: for besides the numbers who were 
supposed to have perished in the ruins of the conflagration, 
the return of killed and wounded amounted to no fewer 
than 458. By this resolute conduct of the King, tranquillity 
was soon restored, and the author of the calamity, Lord G. 
Gordon, was apprehended, committed to the Tower, and 
subsequently tried for high treason, of which charge he was 
however acquitted. Some years after he was convicted of 
publishing a libel on the Queen of France, the French 
ambassador, and the Empress of Russia, sentenced to five 
years' imprisonment, and to find bail for his good behaviour 
in £10,000, which not being able to do, he continued in 
Newgate till his death. 

These disturbances appear to have made some impression 
upon the Commons, for a bill was proposed for " affording 
security to the Protestant religion from the encroachments 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 305 

of Popery, by more effectually restraining Papists from 
taking upon themselves the education of Protestant children." 
This was rightly considered by the Lords as a concession to. 
that spirit which had produced so many lamentable effects, 
and therefore unworthy the dignity of Parliament ; it was 
accordingly rejected by a vote of their house for deferring 
the third reading of the bill to a day beyond the sitting of 
Parliament. 

Some time after the ferment occasioned by the riots had 
subsided, a meeting was held of some of the principal Catho- 
lic nobility and gentry ; five of whom were formed into a 
committee for a limited time, to promote and attend to the 
affairs of the Roman Catholic body in England. Among the 
objects which appear to have occupied their attention, was 
a plan to change the vicarial form of their ecclesiastical 
government into a regular hierarchy, by the appointment of 
bishops in ordinary, which they conceived was not only 
more conformable to the general practice of the church, but 
would moreover obviate the objection made by their adver- 
saries, of the absolute dependance of the Vicars Apostolic 
upon the See of Rome. 

The formation of a committee composed solely of laymen, 
appointed for the express purpose of new modelling the 
Catholic hierarchy in this kingdom, certainly appeared a 
mode of proceeding not likely to procure the concurrence 
of those who thought, and with reason, that in a business so 
immediately concerning the ecclesiastical body, not only 
should the bishops and clergy have been consulted, but that 
they should have had the principal direction of the whole 
affair. 

As might have been foreseen, discord, animosity, and 
reproaches, were the consequence ; the project was aban- 
doned ; and the time for which the committee had been 
appointed having expired, they were dissolved, and a new 
one appointed in 1787, consisting also of five members, to 
whom were added in the following year, Bishop Talbot, of 
the London district; Bishop Berrington, coadjutor of the 
Midland district ; and the Rev. Jh. Wilks, a Benedictine 
monk. Previous to the latter nomination, a memorial was 
delivered by the committee to Mr. Pitt, which, as it enume- 
rates the principal grievances to which Catholics were sub- 
ject, is summarily inserted. It begins by shewing that 
11 they are prohibited under severe penalties from exercising 
their religion. 

26* 



306 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

" That they are subject to heavy punishments for keeping 
schools to educate their children at home, and to heavy fines 
for sending them to schools abroad. 

" That the}^ are rendered incapable of serving in his 
Majesty's armies and navies. 

" That thev are restrained from practising in the law. 

" That they are obliged to expose the most secret transac- 
tions of their families, by the obligation of enrolling their 
deeds. 

"That they are subject to the ignominious fine of the 
double land-tax. 

11 That they are deprived of the right of freeholders to 
vote for county members, and not allowed to vote for any 
other members. 

"That they are excluded from all places, civil and mili- 
tary. 

"That they are disqualified from voting in either house 
of parliament. 

" That their clergy are exposed to heavy penalties, impri- 
sonment, and even death, for exercising their functions. 

"That, by the act passed in 1778, the law which most 
prevented their enjoying their landed property was repealed, 
and an oath prescribed to them, by which they most solemnly 
disclaim the belief falsely imputed to them, that there exists 
in any foreign prince, prelate, state, or potentate, either 
directly or indirectly, any civil jurisdiction, power, superio- 
rity, or pre-eminence whatsoever, within this realm. 

"That the English Catholics have universally taken this 
oath. 

"That their general conduct has been blameless. 

" That they hold no principle which can be construed to- 
extend to the subversion or disturbance of the civil or eccle- 
siastical government of this country. 

"That the British Government and the nation at large 
have long been sensible of this, and therefore, with a 
humanity for which the English Catholics are truly grateful, 
have not permitted the laws against them to be executed in 
their utmost extent. 

" That hence prosecutions against them have been dis- 
countenanced by the Government. Informers have been 
universal!)' despised : the nation is their friend ; the letter 
of the law chiefly their enemy. And, 

" That upon these grounds your memorialists hope for 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 307 

your support, in their intended application for redress of 
grievances." 

To this memorial Mr. Pitt returned a favourable answer, 
requesting the Catholics to furnish him with evidence of the 
opinion of the Catholic Universities relative to the dispens- 
ing power of the Pope. 

In pursuance of the Minister's suggestions, three ques- 
tions were sent to the Universities of the Sorbonne, Lou- 
vaine, Douay, Alcala, and Salamanca, expressed in the fol- 
lowing terms : 

11 1. Has the Pope or Cardinals, or any body of men, or 
any individual of the Church of Rome, any civil authority, 
power, jurisdiction, or pre-eminence whatsoever within the 
realm of England ? 

" 2. Can the Pope or Cardinals, or any body of men, or 
any individual of the Church of Rome, absolve or dispense 
with his Majesty's subjects from their oath of allegiance, 
upon any pretext whatsoever ? 

" 3. Is there any principle in the tenets of the Catholic 
faith, by which Catholics are justified in not keeping faith 
with heretics, or other persons differing from them in religious 
opinions, in any transaction of a public or private nature ?" 

To these questions all the Universities returned an abso- 
lute and unconditional negative : some of them expressing 
their astonishment that there could be found persons who 
would dare to impute to Catholics any thing so absurd and 
iniquitous. 

In the mean time, by order of the Catholic Committee, 
the draft of a bill was prepared by Mr. Charles Butler, their 
secretary, for the repeal of the laws against the English 
Catholics ; but upon the suggestion, it is said, of Lord Stan- 
hope, who warmly advocated their cause in Parliament, the 
bill was laid aside and another substituted in its stead, in 
which the Committee consented that the English Catholics 
should receive the appellation of " Protesting Catholic 
Dissenters. 1 ' This Protestation was subsequently communi- 
cated to the Bishops, Dr. James Talbot, Dr. Thomas Talbot, 
Dr. Walmesley, and Dr. Gibson, who, with their clergy, and 
indeed the great body of the Catholics, were by no means 
content with the appellation designed for them ; however, 
after various modifications in the bill, and explanations, it 
was signed by them and most of the clergy ; and at a gene- 
ral meeting in 1789, by a number of English laity, after 
which a copy of it was laid before Parliament. 



308 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

Soon after, a fresh oath instead of the protestation was 
adopted by the Committee, and shewn by them to the Min- 
isters ; who made some alterations, to which the Committee 
assented, and in this state it was inserted, June 1789, in 
Woodfall's Register. Again, however, a new modelling of 
it took place, which protracted the time so much, that it was 
thought advisable not to introduce it to Parliament during 
that session, but to request Mr. Mitford (now Lord Redes- 
dale) to give notice of his intention to bring it in, in the 
next. 

This delay gave time to the Bishops to reflect maturely 
upon the whole tenor of the bill, in consequence of which 
a synod was convened at Hammersmith in October, at 
which were present Bishops Walmesley, James Talbot, 
Thomas Talbot, and Matthew Gibson, together with two 
coadjutors, Bishops William Sharrock and Charles Berring- 
ton, the Reverend Robert Bannister, and Reverend John 
Milner. 

The substance of their meeting is contained in an ency- 
clical letter, in which the oath is formally condemned, and 
their flocks enjoined not to take any oath, or subscribe to 
any instrument in which their religion was concerned, with- 
out the previous approbation of their respective Bishops. 

In consequence of this condemnation, the Committee 
waited upon Mr. Mitford, to request him to alter the oath to 
the words of the protestation, which was accordingly done ; 
but still it was pronounced objectionable by Bishop Douglas, 
who had, upon the death of Bishop James Talbot, become 
Vicar Apostolic of the London district ; by Bishop William 
Gibson, Vicar Apostolic of the Northern district on the death 
of Bishop Matthew Gibson ; and Bishop Walmesley, of the 
Midland district. The Committee, however, refusing to make 
any further alterations in the bill, it passed the House of 
Commons ; but in the House of Lords, at the suggestions of 
the Catholic Bishops, it was rejected, and what is called the 
Irish oath of 1778 substituted in its place. 

After depositing the protestation in the British Museum, 
the Committee dissolved itself, and thus ended this unfortu- 
nate controversy, in which, during upwards of two } r ears, 
much acrimony had been displayed, and great scandal given 
to both Catholics and Protestants. 

In Ireland, previous to the union in 1800, negotiations had 
been entered into by Lord Castlereagh, by which the Catho- 
lics were given to understand, that their support of the in- 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 309 

tended union would be followed by their complete emancipa- 
tion from all their disabilities. The union took place ; but 
the scruples of the King at that time with regard to the cor- 
onation oath, and other impediments, prevented the fulfilment 
of the Minister's promises. 

After various plans for the accomplishment of so desirable 
an object, it was suggested by Ministers, that in return for so 
great a boon some securities on the part of the Irish Catho- 
lics, with regard to the appointment of their Bishops, and the 
intercourse of their clergy with the see of Rome, would be 
required by Government, and a veto or negative was in con- 
sequence proposed ; this at first appeared to meet with the 
approbation of some of their bishops, but was subsequently 
rejected by the whole episcopal body, and generally by ail 
the Catholics of Ireland. The bill, in consequence, which 
had been introduced into Parliament for their relief, was 
abandoned. 

In England, the Catholic Committee having been dissolved, 
no regular meeting of their body took place till 1808, when 
one was convened by public advertisement, at which sub- 
scriptions were entered into for the purpose of forwarding 
their claims in Parliament ; at the same time a select board 
was chosen, and in 1813 it was finally organised under the 
name of "the Catholic Board," with a standing committee, 
which continues to the present time. 

From this period scarcely a session of Parliament elapsed 
without the introduction of the question of Catholic eman- 
cipation. In some instances it passed the House of Com- 
mons, but was uniformly negatived in the House of Lords. 
An act, however, was introduced in 1817, by Government 
itself, which passed almost without observation. This act 
authorized the giving of commissions in the army and navy, 
without requiring previously the taking of the oaths, or sub- 
scribing to the declarations. This act does not, however, dis- 
pense with the obligation of taking or subscribing subsequently 
to their appointments, but from the consequences of this 
they are exempted by the act of indemnity, which passes 
annually. 

This was the last of the many public benefits, which the 
increasing liberality of the times enabled Government to be- 
stow during the reign of George III. on his Catholic subjects ; 
that they are not deficient in the grateful remembrance 
of them, their steady loyalty, and firm attachment to his 



310 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

throne and family on many a trying occasion, afford ample 
proof. 

A considerable portion of the first session of the Parliament 
called by George IV. shortly after his accession to the throne, 
was chiefly occupied by debates on the claims of the Catho- 
lics, whose hopes, notwithstanding repeated disappointments, 
still continued unabated, particularly in Ireland, where a 
permanent association was formed for the furtherance of their 
object. 

In the session of 1822, Mr. Canning moved for leave to 
bring in a bill which should restore to the Catholic Peers 
their right of sitting and voting in the House of Lords. With 
all the powers of his wonderful genius, that accomplished 
orator, pressing into his service with admirable felicity, the 
ceremony of the coronation in the preceding summer, asked : 
"Did it occur to the ambassadors of Catholic Austria, of 
Catholic France, when contemplating this animating specta- 
cle, that the Duke of Norfolk would become disseised of the 
exercise of his privileges among his fellow-peers ; that his 
robes of ceremony were to be laid aside and hung up until 
the distant (be it a very distant) day. when the coronation 
of a successor to his present most gracious Sovereign might 
again call him forth to assist at a similar solemnization — 
that, after being thus exhibited to the eyes of the Peers and 
people of England, and to the representatives of the princes 
and nations of the world, the Duke of Norfolk, highest in 
rank among the Peers — the Lord Clifford, and others like 
him, representing a long line of illustrious ancestry, as if 
called forth and furnished for the occasion, like the lustres 
and banners that flamed and glittered in the scene., were to 
be, like them, thrown by as useless and trumpery formali- 
ties? — that they might bend the knee and kiss the hand — 
that they might bear the train and rear the canopy— might 
discharge the offices assigned by Roman pride to their bar- 
barous ancestors, 

< Purpurea tollant aulsa Britanni,' 

but that with the pageantry of the hour their importance 
faded away ; that as their distinction vanished, their humilia- 
tion returned ; and that he who headed the procession of Peers 
to-day, could not sit among them as their equal to-morrow." 
This bill passed the Commons by a small minority, but was 
thrown out of the House of Lords. 

On the 3d of February, 1P.25, the sixth session of the first 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 311 

of ttv? existing Parliament was opened by commission. After 
references to foreign affairs and other incidents, the commis- 
| sioners added : " It is much to be regretted that associations 
% should exist in Ireland which have adopted proceedings irre- 
l.. concilable with the spirit of the constitution, and calculated, 
by exciting alarm, and by exasperating animosities, to en- 
danger the peace of society, and to retard the course of 
: national improvement. His Majesty relies upon your wis- 
dom to consider without delay the means of applying a 
remedy. 

Mr. Brougham, on the motion for an address, took occa- 
sion to comment upon this part of the speech. "The 
speech," said he, "talks of associations in the plural, and 
not without an object. I warn the House not to be en- 
trapped by the contrivance : that little letter ' s ' is one of 
the slyest introductions that ever Belial resorted to, when he 
would 

' Make the worse appear 
The better reason, to perplex and dash 
Maturest counsels ; for his thoughts are low.' 

I am perfectly aware who added that c s ' ; I know the hand. 
I discern one of those ' subtle equities ' so familiar to the 
court over which a noble and learned lord presides. Let 
the proposed measures be carried, and the Catholic Associa- 
tion will be put down with one hand, whilst the Orange 
Societies will receive only a gentle tap with the other." 

A bill, however, was brought in by Mr. Goulbourn, the 
Irish Secretary, entitled " A Bill to amend the Acts relating 
to unlawful Societies in Ireland :" in other words, to put down 
the Catholic Association. An eloquent and warm debate 
ensued, which was protracted by adjournment through four 
' nights, and the motion was at length carried by a majority 
of 278 to 1-23. 

A Catholic deputation in London, from the association, 
employed to watch and resist the measures taken for its sup- 
pression, presented a petition by Mr. Brougham, denying, 
and offering to disprove the allegations against it ; and Mr. 
Brougham moved that the petitioners should be heard by 
counsel at the bar of the house ; but his motion was not 
successful. The bill passed both houses, and received the 
royal assent on the 9th of March, previous to which the 
association dissolved itself, only to be resuscitated under 
another form. 



312 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

Soon after this, a petition of the Irish Catholics was pre- 
sented by Sir Francis Burdett, who brought forward a motion 
in a new form, viz. including the repeal of disabilities, the 
enactment of a state provision for the clergy, and the raising 
of the forty-shilling freeholders to a ten pound franchise. 
The two latter measures, called in derision "the wings" of 
the Emancipation Bill, were intended, the one as a security 
for the state, the other as a protection for the Irish Protestants 
against the overwhelming majorities of the Catholics at elec- 
tions. This motion was carried by a small majority through 
the Commons. 

During the second and third readings of this bill in the 
Commons, the Duke of York, in presenting a petition from 
the canons of Windsor against the Catholics in the House 
of Lords, closed his speech with that memorable declaration, 
that he would, to the last moment of his life, whatever his 
situation or under whatever circumstances, resist the eman- 
cipation of the Catholics, "So help him God!" Such a 
speech, coming from the presumptive heir of the crown, is 
supposed to have had a great share in the rejection of the 
bill, as well as to stimulate that mass of brute ignorance and 
bigotry which is to be found even amongst the most enlight- 
ened people. The Catholic Question was embarrassed rather 
than aided by these "wings," and Mr. O'Connell, the popu- 
lar and indefatigable leader of the Irish Catholics, having 
consented to the provision for their clergy, as well as lent his 
aid to disfranchise their forty-shilling freeholders, under the 
hopes of carrying the Emancipation Bill, no sooner saw the 
motion lost, and the odium attending his support of "the 
wings," than he made a public recantation of his errors, and 
asked pardon of his God and his country. 

The Lords' committee on the general condition of Ireland 
was re-appointed at the beginning of this session, and the 
mass of evidence appended to the report surprised many, 
and shocked all, by the perusal of such a history of human 
wrongs and wretchedness in Ireland. The Catholic Associa- 
tion now appeared, after six months' suppression, under a 
new form, without constituent organization, without commit- 
tees, without officers, without collections of money, without 
adjourned meetings, and pursued its destination with more 
success than ever. The "rent" was received, as usual, 
under the name of "free gifts," and the Catholics began to 
shew a more daring sense of their numbers and their rights. 
The clergy joined with the laity, and the consequence was 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 313 

t. most astonishing unanimity and singleness of purpose. 
This power decided the elections three out of the four prov- 
inces in favour of emancipation. It dispossessed the Beres- 
ford family of the county representation of Waterford. 
Never was popular retribution more just, or the victim better 
chosen. 

The next session of Parliament was opened on the 29th 
of January, and on the 26th of February Lord John Russell 
introduced, with an able speech, the consideration of the 
sacramental test and corporation acts, and moved that they 
should be referred to a committee of the whole House, with 
a view to their repeal. In spite of the whole force of Min- 
isters, the motion was carried by a majority of 237 to 193, 
and sent up to the Lords, where, supported by the Duke of 
Wellington, prime minister, it was approved by the bench 
of bishops, but opposed by Lord Eldon, who declared that, 
much as he had heard of " the march of intellect," he never 
had expected to see this bill march into their Lordships' 
house, with the Duke of Wellington and the bishops con- 
senting parties. " For my part," said his Lordship "I will 
not give up the church : let that be the work of others, 
whether within or without the church I care not." After 
several attempts to narrow the principle of the bill in the 
committee, it passed without opposition through its remaining 
stages, and became the law of the land, to the great satisfac- 
tion of the Catholics, who had used every exertion in favour 
of it, both from principle and policy. 

On the 8th of May, Sir Francis Burdett moved a commit- 
tee of the whole house on the Catholic claims. This motion 
was again carried by a majority of six, and as usual, lost in 
the House of Lords by a majority of forty-four, with no other 
novelty than that of an abortive conference on the subject 
between deputies on the part of each House in the Painted 
Chamber. 

In Ireland, the Catholic clergy continued to identify them- 
selves with the association, while on the other hand fanatical 
zeal and restless bigotry, which flourished so much in the 
United Kingdom, combined in a crusade against what they 
called Popish idolatry ; £0 sanguine in their hopes were the 
new crusaders, that they promised to subdue the Irish Cath- 
olics in a year or two to the Protestant faith. Lord Roden 
in the House of Lords, opposed emancipation as unnecessary, 
because the Catholics of Ireland would soon be Protestant." 
The ostensible means of "the second reformation," as it was 

27 



314 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

called, were educating the children of the C.itholic poor, 
and distributing the Bible without note or comment. But 
under this disguise were practised intrigue, bigotry, and base 
contrivances. The naked and starving Catholic poor were 
tempted, by a pretended charity, with food, clothes, and money, 
to prostitute their consciences, and dress their children in the 
livery of apostacy. 

These attempts could not, of course, be viewed by the Cath- 
olic clergy with indifference, and recantations of the so-called 
popish errors, were succeeded by remorse, and a return to 
their ancient faith. 

The first display of their power, to use the expression of 
Mr. Shiel, one of their most eloquent leaders, "made the 
Great Captain start." Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, who had vacat- 
ed his seat in Parliament for Clare, by becoming a Cabinet 
minister, re-appeared on the hustings of his native county 
with every advantage of personal character, local influence 
of family and fortune, and advocacy of the Catholic claims ; 
but he was a member of the Wellington ministry, and the 
Clergy and the Association, by their unbounded influence 
over the peasantry, drove him from the field the second day, 
and boldly chose Mr. O'Connell in his place. 

The Catholics have been reproached with ingratitude, for 
unseating one who had advocated their cause ; the reproach 
is unjust; they rejected him only because he belonged to 
the Wellington administration : his vote and speech were but 
a mockery, whilst the government to which he belonged was 
based upon the principle of exclusion. It was, however, 
well understood that Mr. O'Connell would not be admitted 
to sit and vote ; still it was such an appalling manifestation 
of Catholic determination and strength -as no anti-catholic min- 
ister would venture to encounter on a general election. The 
success in Clare gave an additional impulse to agitation, — a 
term which had been applied to the Catholic leaders as one 
of reproach, but which they now adopted as a title of distinc- 
tion and honour, — as a strong proof of the power of their 
party and an earnest of success. The act against the Asso- 
ciation which had been evaded by a change of form, expired 
at the close of the session, and the Association immediately 
resumed the whole machinery of its committees, adjourned 
meetings, and branch associations throughout Ireland. A 
plan was formed to sever the bond/which had existed between 
the forty-shilling freeholders and their landlords. Hitherto 
the landlords had made their forty-shilling freeholders repair 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 315 

to the hustings and vote according to their commands ; they 
now exclaimed against the wickedness of the agitators in 
encouraging tenants '•' to rebel against their landlord ," and 
about the audacity of " popish priests" in meddling with 
elections. But the agitators and their clergy pursued their 
purpose; they told the forty-shilling freeholders that they had 
a country, a religion, a vote, and a special fund for their relief 
and deferree against the ..hreatened vengeance of their land- 
lords. They devised certain tests, the foremost of which 
was uncompromising opposition to the ministry so long as 
the Duke resisted emancipation, and without absolutely pledg- 
ing themselves to this, no candidate was to have their support. 
So entirely did the whole Catholic peasantry enter into this 
feeling that nocturnal outrage and lawless violence, even local 
disputes, ceased at their word. It is a paradox in terms, but 
not the less a fact, that Ireland was pacified by agitation. 

The Association had now shown itself a political engine 
of great power, directed with great skill and energy. What 
popular body, with only its moral and intellectual force, ever 
achieved so much? Two of its members. Mr. O'Connell 
and Mr. Shiel, particularly distinguished themselves. Mr. 
O'Connell had had long experience in Irish politics, a perfect 
knowledge of Irish temper in the peasantry, a ready, dexterous, 
bold eloquence, which could be humorous, rhetorical, or over- 
whelming with abusive epithets ; his power over aggregate 
meetings was unbounded. Mr. Shiel, more educated, dis- 
tinguished as a writer, taking a superior tone of declamation, 
had more influence with the higher classes of Irish Catholics, 
and, through the publication of his speeches in the English 
newspapers, with the English people. The following ener- 
getic and faithful description of the state of Ireland at this 
period produced a great sensation in England : — " Does not 
a tremendous organization extend over the whole island ? 
Have not all the natural bonds by which men are tied toge- 
ther, been broken and burst asunder? Are not all the rela- 
tions of society which exist elsewhere, gone ? Has not pro- 
perty lost its influence, — has not rank been stripped of the 
respect which should belong to it, — and has not an internal 
government sprung up which, gradually superseding the legit- 
imate authorities, has armed itself with a complete domina- 
tion ? Is it nothing that the whole body of the Catholic 
clergy are alienated from the state ; and that the Catholic 
gentry, and peasantry, and priesthood, are all combined in 
one vast confederacy? So much for Catholic indignation 



316 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

while we are at peace ! and when England shall be involved 
in war — I pause ! It is not necessary that I should discuss 
that branch of the division, or point to the cloud which, 
charged with thunder, is hanging over our heads." 

Still the Ministry appeared unmoved. No provocation 
afforded the Irish executive a pretence to act; agitation was 
at the highest, but without infringing public order or the law. 
Lord Anglesea had succeeded a popular viceroy : he came 
with the odium of his appointment by the Wellington minis- 
try — of having used an ill-advised expression in the heat of 
debate — of having given an obnoxious vote — and his first 
appearance in Ireland was in consequence unpopular; but 
his generous character pointed out to him the course he 
ought to pursue, and he soon became the most popular 
viceroy. 

In the mean time, as the summer advanced, the state of 
Ireland assumed a more awful aspect. The Orangemen, 
joined by some who had hitherto remained neutral, forming 
themselves into rival and hostile associations, under the name 
of Brunswick Clubs, breathed nothing but defiance. Still 
the Government continued inactive ; but two incidents ex- 
cited the attention of the public: Mr. Dawson, secretary to 
the treasury and the brother-in-law of Mr. Peel, hitherto a 
zealous anti-emancipator, declared at a public dinner to his 
constituents of Deny, that he had come to the conclusion of 
the necessity of emancipation, as the only means of restoring 
the supremacy of the laws in Ireland. 

The Duke of Wellington had formerly had friendly inter- 
course in Spain with Dr. Curtis, the Catholic Primate of 
Ireland. In answer to a letter from that prelate on the alarm- 
ing state of Ireland, the Duke expressed his anxiety to wit- 
ness the settlement of the Catholic question, but confessed 
he saw no prospect of such a settlement. " If, however," 
gays he, "we could bury it in oblivion for a short time, I 
should not despair of seeing a satisfactory result." What- 
ever may have been the intention of the Duke, his letter was 
sufficiently obscure. Dr. Curtis communicated it to the Lord 
Lieutenant, who in reply said, " I differ from the Duke, first, 
because to bury it in oblivion is impossible : and next, if it 
were possible, it might be represented, that if the government 
at once and decidedly refused concession, the Catholics 
would cease to agitate, and then all the miseries of the last 
year would be to be acted over again. What I do recom- 
mend is, that the measure should not for a moment be lost 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 3J7 

sight of; that all constitutional moans should be resorted to ; 
but that at the same time the most patient forbearance, the 
most submissive obedience to the laws, should be inculcated, 
that no personal or offensive language should be held towards 
those who oppose the claims. Let the Catholic trust to the 
justice of his cause.. — to the growing liberality of mankind. 
My warm anxiety to promote the general interests of this 
countiy is the motive that has induced me to give my opin- 
ion and offer my advice." 

Lord Anglesea's letter was dated the 25th of December, 
and on the 28th he was recalled : various motives besides 
the writing the above letter have been assigned for this step; 
among others his popularity with the Association, his dining 
with a popular Irish nobleman. Some, however, are of 
opinion that the Duke of Wellington, whose mind was made 
up to grant emancipation, was determined to have the whole 
glory to himself, and therefore forced a quarrel upon the 
Marquis. 

At the beginning of the year 1829, vague rumours on the 
subject of emancipation began to spread : the Catholics 
anticipated relief; their opponents, stronger measures of 
coercion. On the 5th of February, Parliament was opened 
by commission, with the following decisive recommendation 
from the throne : "The state of Ireland has been the object 
of his Majesty's continued solicitude. His Majesty laments 
that in that part of the united kingdom an association should 
still exist which is dangerous to the public peace, and incon- 
sistent with the spirit of the constitution ; which keeps alive 
discord and ill-will amongst his Majesty's subjects, and which 
must, if permilted to continue, effectually obstruct every 
effort to improve the condition of Ireland. His Majesty 
confidently relies on the wisdom and on the support of his 
Parliament; and his Majesty feels assured that you will 
commit to him such powers as may enable his Majesty to 
maintain his just authority. His Majesty recommends, that 
when this essential object shall have been accomplished, you 
should take into your deliberate consideration the whole 
condition of Ireland, and that you should review the laws 
which impose civil disabilities on his Majesty's Roman 
Catholic subjects. You will consider whether the removal 
of those disabilities can be effected consistently w r ith the full 
and permanent security of our establishments in church and 
state, with the maintenance of our religion as established by 
law, and of the rights and privileges of the Bishops and of 

27* 



#18 ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 

the Clergy of this realm, and of the churches committed to 
their charge." 

The Catholics and the friends of religious liberty received 
this announcement with a temperate joy ; but the exclu- 
sionists set no bounds to their rage. They complained of 
treacherous desertion and surprise. " Had," said they, 
"the Duke of Wellington disclosed his intentions sooner, 
the petitions of the people would have fortified and secured 
the opposition of the King." The Duke, in his vindication, 
declared that he had not received the King's sanction until 
near the last moment. Mr. Peel, who came in for no small 
share of their indignation and reproach, entered into a cir- 
cumstantial defence of the course he had pursued : he 
declared that, to maintain his consistency, he had deter- 
mined to resign ; but that if he had done so, the Duke 
would have found it difficult to succeed ; and that judging 
the contemplated measure absolutely necessary, he thought 
it his duty to support the prime minister. 

A call of the house for the 5th of March was ordered : 
and on that da} r Mr. Peel rose to move, '•' a committee of the 
whole house, to consider of the laws imposing civil disabili- 
ties on his Majesty's Roman Catholic subjects." — " They 
could not," he said, " stand still ; they must re-enact or 
repeal." He then stated the nature of the measure, viz- 
the abolition of civil distinctions, and the equality of civil 
rights. This declaration was received with a burst of 
applause. A new oath was proposed to be taken by the 
Catholic members of parliament, the only material article of 
which was, that they would not employ their privileges 
against the Protestant church or state; and Catholics were 
to continue disqualified for the offices of Lord Lieutenant cf 
Ireland and Keeper of the Great Seal. The motion was car- 
ried by a majority of 348 to 188. Resolutions in the com- 
mittee proposed by Mr. Peel were agreed to ; a bill founded 
on these was introduced by him. and on the 30th of March 
it was read a third time and passed. 

The next day Mr. Peel, accompanied by an unusual num- 
ber of members, presented his bill at the bar of the House 
of Lords, where it was, the same evening, read a first time 
without opposition. On the 2d of April came on the second 
reading, when the Duke of Wellington made one of his best 
parliamentary speeches. One passage spoken by him, in a 
tone of deep feeling, made great impression on the house 
After recapitulating the dreadful state of society in Ireland. 



ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. 319 

he said, "It has been my fortune, , my lords, to have seen 
much of war — more than most men. I have been constantly 
engaged in the active duties of my profession from my boy- 
hood until I have grown grey. My life has been passed in 
scenes of death and human suffering. Circumstances have 
placed me in countries where the war was internal, between 
opposite parties of the same nation ; and rather than a 
country I loved should be visited with the calamities I have 
seen — with the unutterable horrors of civil war — my lords, 
I would run any risk — I would make any sacrifice — I would 
freely la)' down my life." 

The debate was continued by adjournment through four 
nights. The Archbishop of Canterbury opposed the motion, and 
moved as an amendment, that the bill should be read a second 
time that day six months ; the great body of the bishops, 
with few exceptions, supported the amendment, and amongst 
the lay lords, Lord Eldon shewed himself the most unbend- 
ing opponent of the bill. It was, however, carried on the 
10th, and on the 13th it received the royal assent, and 
became an eternal monument of the determined, energetic, 
and adroit genius of the Duke of Wellington. 

The relief bill having now passed, Mr. O'Connell pre- 
sented himself to take his seat for Clare. The clerk pro- 
duced the old oath which the late bill had repealed. Mr. 
O'Connell proposed to take that prescribed to Catholics by 
the new act. The Speaker informed him, that being returned 
before the passing of the new act, he was excluded in 
express terms from its operation. Mr. O'Connell was heard 
\t the bar, and argued ingeniously and ably in support of 
nis right, which however was negatived by a majority of 190 
to 116'. He next day was informed of the decision, and 
asked if he was ready to take the old oath. He requested 
leave to look at it, and having for a moment examined it, he 
said, " I see in this oath an assertion of fact, which I know 
to be false, and an assertion of opinion which I believe to be 
false." The provision of the new bill which had excluded 
Mr. O'Connell was expressly intended for that purpose, and 
had been insisted upon by the King. Mr. O'Connell 
returned to Ireland, and was re-elected for Clare without 
opposition. The whole interest of the session was absorbed 
in this single and all-important measure, and it was pro- 
rogued on the 24th of June. 



320 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 

CHAPTER HI. 

Laws, Government, S{c. 

In the reign of William III., the intrigues of the Whigs 
and Tories, their_perpetual opposition to each other, and the 
necessity of large supplies to support the continental war, 
gave rise to two evils of considerable magnitude : the cor- 
ruption of the House of Commons, and the national debt; 
the former by the sums they employed to bring over their 
political adversaries, and procure a majority in Parliament; 
and the latter, by the large loans they contracted to maintain 
their foreign connexions. To put a stop to this corruption 
as far as it affected the representation of the people, a bill 
was brought in for triennial parliaments : and William found 
himself obliged to pass it, or lose the vote of supply by 
which it was accompanied. The great increase, however, 
of the influence of the crown, by the speedy and fortunate 
suppression of the rebellion in 1715, enabled the Whig 
ministry to crush their political enemies the Tories, bj r 
repealing the triennial act, so lately thought essential by 
their own part}'. The repeal, though warmly opposed by 
the Tories, who now took the popular side of the debate, and 
by many independent members of both houses, was carried 
by a great majority. 

At the accession of George II. it was generally imagined 
that Sir Robert Walpole, then prime minister, would have 
been dismissed ; and could the King have found another 
equally capable of managing the House of Commons, that 
event might have happened*, but no minister understood 
better than Sir Robert, the temper of the people of England. 
During his long administration, he never lost a single ques- 
tion which he really wished to carry. The excise scheme 
was the first measure that gave a shock to his power ; and 
even that he could have carried, had he not been afraid of 
the spirit of the people. He was so far from checking the 
freedom of debate, that he bore with equanimity the most 
scurrilous abuse. In compliance with his friends, he gave 
way in a few instances to prosecutions for libels ; but it is 
certain, that the English press was never more free than dur- 
ing his administration. Peace was his darling object, and it 
undoubtedly more than repaid the nation all that was required 



LA.WS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 321 

to support it, by the increase of trade and the improvement 
of manufactures. 

At the death of George II., William Pitt was prime min- 
ister, and wielded with extraordinary success the energies 
of the nation, engaged! at that time in a war with France 
carried on in the four quarters of the globe. No change 
was immediately made in the ministry by George III. at his 
accession. u 

One of the concluding acts of the Parliament, which, 
according to law, continued its sitting six months after the 
demise of the King, was to fix the civil list at £300,000 
a-year, instead of the specific revenues settled on the late 
king. Another act which highly endeared the young mon- 
arch to the nation, was the bill recommended by him to 
Parliament, to render the judges irremovable, either at the 
demi>e or will of the sovereign. 

Mr. Pitt did not long continue in office ; thwarted in his 
design of declaring war against Spain, which he foresaw 
must take place, he declared that he could no longer remain 
in a situation which made him responsible for measures he 
was not allowed to guide : he therefore resigned the seals of 
secretary, and was made Earl of Chatham. 

In the year 1783 Mr. Wilkes, a member of the Commons, 
who for some time had written a periodical paper called the 
North Briton, in which Lord Bute and the other ministers 
w T ere violently attacked, was, upon the publication of his 
forty-fifth number, seized by three of the King's messengers, 
who entered his house in the night by virtue of a general 
warrant issued by one of the Secretaries of State. The 
obnoxious paper was voted by the House of Commons to be 
a seditious libel, and ordered to be burnt by the common 
hangman. Mr. Wilkes, however, brought an action against 
the Secretary for seizing his papers. The cause was tried 
before Lord Chief Justice Pratt and a special jury, who 
gave a verdict in his favour, with large damages, the Judge 
in his charge explicitly declaring the illegality of general 
warrants. 

The session of 1771 is distinguished by an occurrence high- 
ly interesting to public liberty, viz. the contest between the 
House of Commons and the printers of their debates, the 
publication of which, from that time, has met with no oppo- 
sition or impediment. 

In 177*2, in consequence of the two brothers of George III., 
the Dukes of Gloucester and Cumberland, having married 



.3-22 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 

privately, the former the Countess Dowager of Waldegrave. 
the latter a widow lady of the name of Horton, a bill was 
brought into Parliament, for the express purpose of keeping 
the succession to the throne as clear and distinct as possible, 
which was thought essentially necessary for the peace of the 
nation. By this bill it was enacted, that all the descendants 
of his late Majesty George II., except the issue of such prin- 
cesses as have married, or may marry, into foreign families, 
shall be incapable of contracting marriage without the pre- 
vious consent of the King, or his successor to the throne, sig- 
nified under the great seal, and declared in council: and that 
every such marriage, without such consent, shall be null and 
void : limiting the prohibition, however, to twenty-five years 
of age ; after which, upon giving one year's notice of their 
intention to the Privy Council, they may marry without the 
consent of the Crown, if Parliament does not, in the mean 
time, disapprove of the contract; and further, all persons 
who shall knowingly presume to solemnize or assist at the 
celebration of such illicit marriage, shall be liable to all the 
pains and penalties of the statute of premunire. This bill 
was opposed by a great number of Peers, who signed a pro- 
test against it on the journals of the House of Lords. 

In the course of the same session a material alteration was 
likewise made in the criminal law of the kingdom. Form- 
erly, when a felon refused to plead, he was stretched upon 
his back at full length, and a heavy weight laid upon his 
breast, which was gradually increased till he expired, during 
which cruel operation he was fed with nothing but a crust 
pf bread and some dirty water. By a bill now brought in, 
this shameful practice was abolished, and all felons refusing 
to plead, are adjudged guilty of the crimes laid to their 
charge. 

In the year 1783 the famous coalition ministry, composed 
of Lord North and his friends on one side, and Mr. Fox and 
his friends on the other, was announced, but did not continue 
long to guide the reins of Government. Mr. Fox, in attempt- 
ing to perpetuate his power by the introduction of his famous 
East-India Bill, was the cause of their dismissal ; and to 
them succeeded Mr. W. Pitt, then only twenty-four years 
of age, son of the famous Earl of Chatham, as First Lord 
of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord 
Thurlow, High Chancellor; Lord Svdney and Marquis Car- 
marthen, Secretaries ; the Duke of Rutland, Privy Seal ; and 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 32$ 

Viscount Howe, Mr. W. Grenville, Lord Mulgrave, and Mr 
H. Dundas, to the^other departments. 

The ensuing Parliament presented the uncommon specta- 
cle of a House of Commons almost wholly composed of 
members in opposition to ministers, and at open variance 
with them. Every motion made by Mr. Pitt was negatived, 
and several addresses were presented to the King, by the 
majority, for the dismissal of his ministers ; to which his 
Majesty answered, "that he could see no satisfactory effect 
that would be produced by their dismission." The Parlia- 
ment, by advice of the ministers, was soon after dissolved, 
amidst the threats of Mr. Fox and his party. The succeed- 
ing elections fully justified the conduct of Mr. Pitt; up- 
wards of one hundred and sixty members, mostly friends of 
the opposition, were rejected, and replaced by those of the 
ministers. 

The session of 1786 is remarkable, in a financial point of 
view, for the establishment of what is called the sinking 
fund. By this plan Mr. Pitt proposed to set aside one mil- 
lion surplus revenue annually, at compound interest, to be 
applied to the gradual diminution of the national debt. The 
policy of the principle being universally admitted, the mo- 
tion was carried without a division, and the bill immedi- 
ately passed through both Houses, and received the royal 
assent. 

In 1787, an addition of £10,000 per annum was made to 
the income of the Prince of Wales, and £781,000 appropri- 
ated out of the civil list for the payment of the debts in which 
his highness had involved himself. 

In 1788, a subject deeply interesting to every friend of 
humanity, viz. the abolition of the Slave Trade, was for the 
first time introduced into Parliament, and, after very prolong- 
ed discussions, in that and various other subsequent sessions, 
was finally carried by very great majorities. 

In October the nation was cast into great apprehensions 
by the sudden indisposition of the King, and the uncertainty 
of his recovery. A regency was proposed in Parliament, 
Mr. Fox declaring that whenever the Sovereign became 
incapable of exercising his functions, the heir apparent had 
an undisputed claim to that office ; Mr. Pitt, on the contrary, 
maintaining, that the heir apparent had no more right in 
such a case than any other subject; and that it belonged to 
the two remaining branches of the Legislature, in behalf of 
the people, to make such a provision. Mr. Pitt, in conse- 



324 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 

quence, early in the next year moved for leave to bring in a 
regency bill : but happily it was stopped by the announce- 
ment of his Majesty's recovery. Congratulatory addresses 
were immediately and unanimously voted, a day of thanks- 
giving was appointed, and the national rejoicings on this 
happy event exceeded every thing of the kind ever before 
known in the kingdom. 

On the 6th of April 1795, the Prince of Wales was mar- 
ried to Caroline, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, and 
niece of his Majesty. The annual revenue allowed by Par- 
liament on this occasion was very liberal, amounting to 
£135,001), exclusive of the income from the Duchy of Corn- 
wall, estimated at nearly £20,000 more. Out of v .his, how- 
ever, £73,000 was appropriated to the payment of the debts 
contracted by his Royal Highness since the last allowance 
by Parliament for that purpose. 

In the year 1707 an act was passed, prohib'ting for a 
limited period the payments of the Bank in specie. A secret 
committee, appointed to examine the affairs of that great 
national concern, reported that there was a surpJas of pro- 
perty to the amount of nearly four millions, exclusive of the 
debt owing by Government, of almost twelve millions. The 
measure appears to have been necessary from the high price 
of gold, owing to the immense sums sent out of the country 
for the supply of the army and navy, and subsidies to 
foreign powers, and the very great calls upon the Bank by 
Government. 

On the 1st of January 1801, that great political measure, 
the Union of Great Britain with Ireland, was accomplished. 
It is undoubtedly one which tends to consolidate more effec- 
tually the resources and power of the empire; allhough it 
has not } r et produced all the beneficial effects that were 
expected from it. This may, in a great measure, be attri- 
buted to the disappointed hopes of the Catholics of Ireland, 
who were made to believe that a complete emancipation 
from ail their political inabilities, deprivations, and penalties, 
would be the result of their concurrence in the measure. It 
was in consequence of this that Mr. Pitt, with thc.e who 
had sanctioned the stipulation, found it necessary, uj on the 
rejection of the claims of the Irish, to retire from tho min- 
istry, and accordingly he resigned the seals of office as- prime 
minister to Mr. Addington, Speaker of the House ot Com- 
mons : who was succeeded in the chair by Sir John JV itford. 

The year 1806 is rendered remarkable by the deaths of 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 325 

those two eminent statesmen, Mr. Pitt, who died on the 23d 
of January ; and Mr. Fox, who succeeded him in the min- 
istry, and died the September following. No greater praise 
can be bestowed upon t e integrity of the former than the 
fact that, after having wielded for so long a time the whole 
power and revenues of the empire, he died so poor, that his 
country was obliged to defray the expenses of his funeral, 
and discharge his debts. 

The year 1807 is distinguished by the total abolition of the 
slave trade, after nineteen years of Parliamentary investiga- 
tion : a work of humanity by which Great Britain acquired 
more true glory than by the most splendid victories. 

In 1811, in consequence of the malady of his late Majesty 
George III., a conference was held between the two Houses 
of Parliament, and what is called the regency bill was 
passed, appointing the Prince of Wales Regent, and vesting 
the management of the King's household in the Queen. 

The administration was in the year 1812 deprived of its 
Premier, Mr. Percival, in a very tragical manner. At the 
moment of his entering the lobby of the House of Com- 
mons, one John Beliingham presented a pistol to his left 
breast, and shot him through the heart. This atrocious deed, 
it appears, was perpetrated for a supposed private injury. 
The assassin had sustained great losses in Russia, in some 
commercial transactions, for which he imagined the English 
Government ought to have procured him redress ; and the 
neglect of his representations working on a mind naturally 
gloomy, led him to the fatal act. He was tried, condemned, 
and paid with his life the forfeit of his horrid crime. Although, 
perhaps, it would not be easy to adduce any instance in 
which Mr. Percival had shewed himself favourable to reli- 
gious, or even civil liberty, or to discover any important 
benefit which the nation had derived from his abilities as a 
minister ; yet his private character had been so much 
esteemed, and the catastrophe was so dreadful, that even his 
political opponents testified their regret, by the ample provi- 
sions made for his widow and family. 

The new ministry, after various plans and attempts, con- 
sisted of Lord Liverpool as First Lord of the Treasury, Lord 
Castlerea^h as Minister for Foreign Affairs, Lord Sidmouth 
(Mr. Addington,) Secretary of State for the Home Depart- 
ment, the Earl of Harrowby, President of the Council, and 
Mr. Vansittart, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

For some time past great disturbances had existed among 
28 



326 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 

the weavers of Nottingham, which now extended to the 
manufacturing districts of Lancashire, Cheshire, and York- 
shire. A great number of outrages were committed, parti- 
cularly in the destruction of machinery, and attempts were 
even made upon the lives of some who had been active in 
suppressing the tumults. The rioters at last had adopted a 
system so completely organized, that it was thought neces- 
sary to resort to very vigorous measures, and in consequence 
a bill was introduced by Lord Castlereagh, and carried by a 
large majority, to prevent the rioters from obtaining arms, to 
guard against tumultuary meetings, and give more power to 
the magistrates of the disturbed districts. One of the 
clauses, that of the power granted to a single magistrate to 
search for arms upon bare suspicion, met with much opposi- 
tion : but its duration being limited to March 1813, it was 
passed into a law. 

In 1814, on account of the unfortunate differences which 
had long existed between the Prince Regent and the Prin- 
cess of Wales, her situation became a subject of animated 
discussion, and greatly agitated the minds of the people. A 
motion was made for augmenting her revenue to £50,000 
per year, which was carried, but at her own request it was 
reduced to £35,000- She then immediately obtained per- 
mission to travel on the Continent. 

At the opening of the Minister's budget in the year 1815, 
when that campaign was commencing which was to be so 
happily terminated by (he memorable battle of Waterloo, no 
less than the enormous sum of eighty millions sterling was 
required for the expenditure of Great Britain, exclusive of 
about ten millions for Ireland. Such was the disturbed 
state of the country during a great part of the year 1817, 
that Ministers, after much opposition, procured the renewed 
suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, and various other 
restrictions upon the liberty of the subject. 

Towards the close of this year the Princess Charlotte, who 
had been married to the Prince of Saxe Coburg, gave birth 
to a dead male child, and sunk herself through exhaustion 
early the next morning, to the great grief of the whole 
nation, who had witnessed with delight her conjugal felicity. 
The following year was marked by the death of Her Majesty 
Queen Charlotte, in the seventy-fifth year of her age. 

Discontents, arising principally from the non-employ, and 
consequent distress of the manufacturing class, continued 
during the year 1819 to agitate the nation. Meetings were 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 327 

held among the lower orders of the people, at Birmingham, 
Manchester, and other populous towns ; and so great was 
the excitation, that even females entered into what were 
called " Female Reform Societies." At Birmingham they 
proceeded to the election of what they termed u a Legislato- 
rial Attorney," to represent the town in the House of Com- 
mons. Sir' Charles Wolseley having previously declared, 
that if elected he was determined to claim his seat, he was 
unanimously chosen. Government now found it necessary' 
to interfere, and Sir Charles was taken into custody. At 
Manchester the reformers, who had placarded a notice of a 
meeting for the same purpose, were informed of its illegality, 
and the design was in consequence relinquished. But instead 
of this a notice was issued, and a meeting was announced 
for the avowedly legal purpose of petitioning Parliament. 
This meeting took place on the 16th of August, and the con- 
course of people who attended was immense, amounting to 
no fewer than 60,000 : and among them two clubs of female 
reformers made their appearance, carrying a white flag. 
Among the banners carried, some were of a menacing nature. 
At length their most celebrated orator, Mr. Hunt, made his 
appearance, and commenced his harangue : but his oration 
was soon interrupted by the appearance of the Manchester 
3 r eomanry. Mr. Hunt called to the people to stand firm, 
fear nothing, and give the military three cheers, which was 
immediately done. The yeomanry, however, very intem- 
perately dashed into the crowd, trampling upon the people, 
and forced their way to the waggon upon which Mr. Hunt 
was haranguing. The commanding officer called out to Mr. 
Hunt to surrender, which he said he was ready to do to any 
civil officer who should produce his warrant: upon which 
the chief police officer took him into custody. A scene of 
confusion and carnage ensued, the cause of which it is diffi- 
cult to ascertain ; it appears however, upon the whole, that 
the regular troops conducted themselves with zeal, coolness, 
and humanity; but thatch e } r eomanry suffered themselves 
to be led away, by their zeal and fear, to unnecessary acts 
of violence. The consequence was, that several were killed, 
and nearly four hundred wounded by the sabres of the yeo- 
manry, or otherwise hurt. Mr. Hunt and some of his asso- 
ciates were imprisoned on charges of high-treason : which 
however were relinquished, and he was subsequently tried 
for a misdemeanor, and sentenced to imprisonment for two 
and a half years, which was considered by many as a very 



328 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 

harsh sentence, it being contended that the dispersion of 
the meeting was an illegal act. In consequence of these dis- 
turbances, and of the continued disaffection of the manufac- 
turing districts, Government procured, after warm debates in 
bouth Houses, the passing of what is called the Six Bills, by 
which system of coercion, though it considerably abridged the 
liberty of the subject, it effectually restored the public tran- 
quillity. 

Such were the final acts of the year 1819, and of the last 
Parliament of the reign of George III. In the evening of 
the 29th January 1820 that monarch expired, almost without 
a pang, having attained the 82d year of 'his age, and 60th of 
his reign, during which he had, by his upright conduct, pos- 
sessed the esteem and love of his subjects, and the confidence 
of his allies. 

The last Parliament called during the late reign was pro- 
rogued by commission on the 28th of February, and the 
public were very much astounded by the information with 
which the speech concluded, viz. a conspiracy to murder 
his Majesty's ministers. The conspiracy referred to was that 
of Thistlewood and his accomplices, a band of about a dozen 
desperadoes, who were captured by the police and military 
on the 23d of February, in an obscure street called Cato 
Street, near the Edgeware Road. Their plan was to assassinate 
the ministers of the crown whilst sitting at a cabinet dinner 
at the house of Lord Harrowby, then rush out, raise the stand- 
ard of rebellion, and constitute themselves the heads of a 
provisional government. The plot was disclosed to the min- 
isters, who made arrangements for surprising the wretches in 
their den at the moment when they were to issue from it for 
the perpetration of their bloody work. Thistlewood, whose 
conduct appeared that of a maniac ; Ings, a butcher; Tidd 
and Brunt, shoemakers ; Davidson, a man of colour ; and 
three persons of the lowest and poorest class, were convicted 
and executed, avowing and vindicating their design. " 

Preparations were now commenced for the coronation of 
his Majesty, when they were suddenly suspended by an 
event which excited more public interest than any that had 
occured for a long period. This was the return of Queen 
Caroline to England, and her subsequent trial in the House 
of Lords. After she had quitted England, as we have else- 
where mentioned, she spent her time in travelling, especial- 
ly in visiting the most celebrated places in the Mediterranean. 
She also went to Jerusalem, and several other towns of the 



LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c. 329 

Holy Land, and afterwards took up her residence on the Lago 
de Como, in the Milanese states, subject to the Emperor of 
.Austria. Reports here began to be circulated very injurious 
to her character, and a secret commission was despatched to 
investigate their truth. This commission sat a long time, and 
collected a great mass of evidence. The Princess of Wales, 
upon learning that persons were thus employed, complained 
publicly by letters in the English and foreign newspapers, 
that she was beset by spies and calumniators; that attempts 
were made to suborn her servants against her; that her 
bureau was broken open and robbed of papers ; and that her 
life had been attempted by poison. 

On the King's accession to the throne, the evidence col- 
lected was made the pretext for omitting the Queen's name 
in the liturgy ; and at the same time the honours due to her 
rank were refused her by foreign pow r ers. Deeply irritated, 
she determined to return to England, and face her accusers. 
On the 5th of June she landed at Dover, and was received 
with the greatest enthusiasm by the populace. The same 
honours were paid to her along the road to the metropolis, 
where her reception was still more gratifying to her. 

On the day cf her arrival in London, a message was sent 
to both houses of Parliament, stating that "the Kiasj thinks 
it necessary, in consequence of the arrival of the Queen, to 
communicate to the House of Lords certain papers respecting 
the conduct of her Majesty since her departure from this 
kingdom, which he recommends to the immediate and serious 
attention of the house. 

" The King has felt the most anxious desire to avert the 
necessity of disclosures and discussions, which must be as 
painful to his people as they can be to himself; but the step 
now taken by the Queen leaves him no alternative. 

" The King has the fullest confidence that, in consequence 
of this communication, the House of Lords will adopt that 
course of proceeding which the justice of the case, and the 
honour and dignity of his Majesty's crown, may require." 

The papers referred to were laid on the table under seal. 
in a green bag. Some delay was occasioned by a useless 
effort of the Commons to effect a compromise : this failing, 
'•'a bill of pains and penalties" to deprive the Queen of her 
rights and dignities, and to divorce her from her husband, 
was brought into the House of Lords. This bill was read a 
first time, a copy ordered to be sent to the Queen, and the 
second reading fixed for the 17th of August. On the 1 i tlv^ 

28* 



330 LAWS, GOVaiyftEBNT, ke. 

Lord Erskine moved, that the Queen should be furnished 
with a list of the witnesses against her. This she would have 
had of right, in common with every other British subject, 
were the form of proceeding by indictment or impeachment 
for high treason. But the majority of the Lords, under the 
direction of Lord Eldon, took advantage of the legal techni- 
cality to withhold from her the great ®gis of the subject 
against perjured witnesses, and the power and passions of 
the crown. A specification of the charges, which she declar- 
ed was necessary for enabling her to produce defensive evi- 
dence, was also refused. After an adjournment of some 
days, the House of Lords met to discuss the second reading. 
The counsel in support of the bill were the King's attorney, 
Sir Robert Gifford, and the solicitor-general, Sir John Copley ; 
the King's advocates, Sir C. Robinson, Dr. Adams, and Mr. 
Parke; and against it, Mr. Brougham, the Queen's attorney- 
general ; Mr. JDenman, her solicitor-general ; Dr. Lushington ; 
and Messrs. Williams, Tindal, and Wilde. Mr. Brougham 
and Mr. Denman were heard against the bill. Their respec- 
tive arguments may be read with interest, as models of the 
first order in judiciary eloquence. The attorn ey-gencral's 
statement occupied two days. The close of it was drowned 
by the drums, trumpets, and tumultuous acclamations which 
announced the approach of the Queen, who came unexpect- 
edly to witness the proceedings. The examination of wit- 
nesses then began, and produced a remarkable incident. 
The Queen, upon hearing the clerk of the house call the 
name of Teodoro Majocchi, started from her seat, with a 
slight shriek, and immediately withdrew. He had been her 
servant, and her cry, when thus taken by surprise, was con- 
sidered rather as a movement of indignation and disgust at 
his treachery, than a symptom of conscious guilt. 

The records of this scandalous investigation are wholly 
unfit for these pages. On the 7th of September, the case 
against the Queen was closed, and on the 3d of October 
Mr. Brougham entered upon her defence, which he conduct- 
ed wi*h surpassing power. He was ably seconded by Mr. 
Williams. An Italian witness, named Rastelli, had been 
examined against the Queen: upon application to have him 
produced for cross-examination, it turned out that he had 
been sent back to Italy. His absence was looked upon as a 
piece of criminal contrivance. Colonel Brown was written 
to, to send him back, and the Colonel in answer stated, that 
Rastelli was ill, and moreover had an insuperable horror of 



LAWS, GOVE'RtfMENTj feel :j:}l 

the sea. The Queen's evidence bein£ finished, Mr. Denman, 
in a speech distinguished as much for fearless boldness as for 
eloquence, went over the case. lie was followed by Dr. 
Lushington on the same side. The second reading of the 
bill began on the :ld of November, and continued by adjourn- 
ment four days, when it was carried by 1&3 to 95; and on 
the l()th, the third reading was carried by a disheartening 
majority of 103 to 90; upon which Lord Liverpool de- 
clared, that with so small a majority, and in the actual 
state of the public mind, he and his colleagues abandoned 
the bill. 

The coronation was fixed for the 19th of July. The Queen 
demanded a participation in the ceremony, which was refused. 
On the morning of the 19th, the unhappy Queen, unmoved 
by the entreaties of her friends, proceeded to the door of 
Westminster Abbey, where she was refused admittance, and 
was obliged to retire through the populace, amidst mingled 
expressions of disapprobation and applause. The exclusion 
from the Abbey, and the signs of disapprobation, wounded 
her deeply; and although her proud and masculine energy 
enabled her to appear in public as usual, her health visibly 
declined. On the 30th of July, whilst at Drury-lane Thea- 
tre, she was taken dangerously ill, and on the 7th of August 
she closed her troubled life at Bradenburgh House, Hammer- 
smith, having directed in her will that the words, '-Here lies 
Caroline of Brunswick, the injured . Queen of England," 
should be her epitaph. 

On the morning of the 14th, after a disgusting contest 
between her executors and the government for the possession 
of her remains, they were removed towards Harwich, for 
the purpose of being interred at Brunswick. The ministers, 
either from a mistaken prudence or a worse motive, gave 
orders that the funeral should take a circuit, to avoid the 
manifestations of the people through London ; but at Ken- 
sington the procession found every road but that of London 
barricadoed by the mob, and was constrained to take the for- 
bidden route, with the intention of passing through Hyde 
Park into the northern road. The gate to the Park was closed 
and barricadoed, but was forced by the military, who pro- 
ceeded to the Cumberland gate, which had also been barri- 
cadoed. Here began a conflict betw r een the soldiers and the 
populace, and two of the mob were killed : the people, how- 
ever, triumphed, and the corpse was taken through the city. 
Six Robert Wilson, who had remonstrated with an officer on 



332 LAWS, GOVERNMENT, &c 

duty, was dismissed from the army. The directing civil 
magistrate, who, to prevent the effusion of more blood, had 
given way to the wish of the people, was also deprived of 
his commission. 

Whilst the Queen was on her death-bed, the King was on 
his way to Ireland. The news of her deatli reached him on 
board the packet, and it was in consequence his wish to land 
privately; but he was recognised by some persons, who im- 
mediately proclaimed the news, and the whole population of 
Dublin pressed around him with the most enthusiastic shouts 
of welcome. After a short visit he re-embarked, in the pres- 
ence of an immense multitude, who rent the air with their 
acclamations and blessings on the first sovereign who had 
visited Ireland without hostile intentions. Immediately after 
his return he visited Hanover, and after a brief stay he came 
back to England. 

This year was signalized by an event, which a short time 
before would have agitated all Europe. This was the death 
of Napoleon Buonaparte, who expired at St. Helena on the 
5th of May. 

To complete the miseries of unfortunate Ireland, a dread- 
ful famine, accompanied by its usual concomitant, disease, 
spread through the country, particularly in the provinces of 
Connaught and Munster. The famine was produced by the 
failure of the potatoe crop, which constitutes the precarious 
staple food of the Irish peasantry. The conduct of Govern- 
ment upon this affliction was prompt and humane. «£50,000 
was placed at the disposal of the Marquis of Wellesley the 
Lord Lieutenant, and at the same time the British nation, 
with a spontaneous and munificent feeling subscribed large 
sums for the relief of their perishing fellow-subjects. The 
money thus procured mitigated the horrors of this visitation, 
until the change of season and the next harvest put an end 
to it. 

Vfter the termination of the session of 1822, the King paid 
a visit to Scotland, and was received in Edinburgh with the 
utmost enthusiasm. The festivities, however, were soon in- 
terrupted by the news of the melancholy death of the Mar- 
quis of Londonderry. After a short interval, Mr. Canning 
was appointed his successor, and received the seals of office 
as secretary for foreign affairs. 

In May 1823, Sir James Mackintosh moved some resolu- 
tions for the purpose of mitigating the severity of the crimi- 
nal laws, which were negatived; but Mr. Peel brought in 



COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 333 

and carried four bills upon the same subject, which, although 
they did not go the length of Sir James's, were still import- 
ant steps in the progress of amelioration. 

On the 5th of January 1827, died the Duke of York, of 
dropsy, after an illness of some weeks, and much suffering. 
As presumptive heir to the throne, obstinately bent against 
all concession to the Catholics, serving as a ready and author- 
itative medium of intolerance to reach the royal ear, his death 
had a great influence upon the state of parties, and greatly 
contributed to the advancement of Mr. Canning. On the 
I2th of April, Mr. Canning was appointed first lord of the 
treasury, and the announcement was cheered by a great ma- 
jority of the House of Commons. But Mr. Canning's health 
had evidently been declining for some time. The ardour of 
his mind, and the clangor of debate, had animated and sus- 
tained him ; but Parliament, had no sooner risen, than his 
illness became decided. After some confinement at his own 
house, he retired to the Duke of Devonshire's house at Chis- 
wick, where he-breathed his last, having been only four months 
prime minister. Mr. T. Robinson, having been elevated to 
the peerage by the title of Lord Goderich, was next appoint- 
ed premier; but the cabinet he had formed soon fell to 
pieces, and the Duke of Wellington then became prime 
minister. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Commerce, Manufactures, fyc. 

The revocation of the edict of Nantz caused a great num- 
ber of French Protestants to seek protection in England, 
where they were much encouraged, and into which they 
not only introduced the fruits of their industry, to a very 
considerable amount, in gold and silver, but also greatly 
improved the manufacture of hats, silks, and linen. 

In consequence of this, the importation of those articles 
t from Fiance was soon prohibited; the culture of flax was 
encouraged ; raw or unmanufactured silk was imported from 
Italy and China: beaver skins were procured from Hudson's 
Bay ; where settlements had been established, and where 
furs were found in great plenty. Clock and watch-work 
was executed in England with the utmost elegance and 



334 COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 

exactness, as well as all other kinds of machinery, cutlery, 
and jewellery. The cotton manufactory, now so highly per- 
fected, was introduced, and toys of all descriptions were at 
length finished with so much taste and facility, as to become 
an article of exportation, even to France itself, the birth- 
place of fashion, and the nursery of splendid trifles. 

The trade to the East-Indies, however, remained in a 
languishing state till after the revolution : but this disadvan- 
tage was amply compensated by the population, culture, and 
extension of the colonies in North America and the West- 
Indies, which began to consume a vast quantity of English 
manufactures. The rich produce of the islands being con- 
veyed in ships of the mother country, afforded employment 
to a great number of seamen ; and as the inhabitants, who 
did not even make their own wearing apparel, or the com- 
mon implements of husbandry, were supplied with clothing 
of all kinds, household furniture, tools, toys, and even luxu- 
ries, from the mother country, the intercourse became very 
active, and was productive of mutual prosperity and happi- 
ness. The English islands in the American Archipelago 
were, in a word, the prime mart for her manufactures, and 
furnished, in return, sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, cocoa, and 
other articles, — a more valuable exchange than that of gold. 

This commerce with our colonies, instead of diminishing 
since the separation of the American states from Great Britain, 
has continually increased. New markets have opened, the 
supplying of which has given a greater range to the inge- 
nuity of our artizans, whose productions have been adapted 
to the wants, not of rising colonies, but of wealthy and re- 
fined nations ; and our commercial system, no longer resting 
on the artificial basis of monopoly, has been rendered more 
solid as well as more liberal. The present trade of England 
to the East-Indies forms one of the most stupendous political, 
as well as commercial machines, that is to be found in history. 
The trade itself is lodged in a company, which has till lately 
enjoyed an entire monopoly of it. In addition to their set- 
tlements on the coast of India, the East-India Company, 
through the various internal revolutions which have happen- 
ed in Hindostan, and the ambition and avarice of their ser- 
vants and officers, have acquired such territorial possessions 
as render them the most formidable commercial body ever 
known in the world. The annual amount of their revenue 
is only known to the Directors of the Company, and even to 
them but very imperfectly. Their expenses are certainly 



COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 335 

very great, in the maintaining of forts, fleets, and armies ; 
but, after all these are defrayed, the Company not only clear 
a vast sum, but were able to pay to Government £100, 000 
yearly, for a certain time, partly to indemnify the nation for 
the expenses incurred in protecting them, and partly as a 
tacit tribute for those possessions that are territorial and not 
commercial. This Company exports to the East-Indies all 
kinds of woollen manufacture, and all sorts of hardware. Their 
import, consists of tea, china-ware, spices, gums, raw silks, 
gold, diamonds for home consumption; and of wrought silks, 
muslins, cottons, and all the woven manufactures of India, 
for exportation to other countries. 

The territorial acquisitions made by the English upon the 
coast of Guinea, particularly their settlement at Senegal, 
opened new sources of commerce with Africa. At present 
England sends to that coast, iron, brass, lead, shot, swords, 
knives, fire-arms, gunpowder, and glass manufacture. The 
returns are in gold dust, gums, dyeing and other drugs, red- 
wood, and ivory. 

With Italy, Turkey, Flanders, and Holland, Spain, and 
Portugal, the balance of trade is in favour of England ; with 
Russia and France against us. The goods exported to Poland, 
chiefly by way of Dantzic, are many, and the duties upon 
them low. A greater quantity of manufactured tobacco is 
sent there than to any other country. 

Inland trade has been greatly improved by the multiplica- 
tion of canals, which arose from the success of the Duke of 
Bridgewater. That nobleman having a great quantity of 
coal, which, on account of the great expense of land car- 
riage, he could not sell to advantage, caused a canal to be 
cut from Worsley to Manchester, under the direction of 
Brindley, an ingenious machinist, who had been bred a 
wheelwright. No locks were introduced in its progress, and 
it was conducted through uneven grounds, within vast 
mounds of earth, under hills, by means of tunnels, and over 
the river Irwell, by means of an aqueduct, which had been 
deemed till then an impracticable work. This canal was 
opened in 1761, and its advantages were soon perceived by 
its noble proprietor and the public. It "was afterwards con- 
tinued to Liverpool, and the example was soon followed by a 
subscription, for a similar one, from the Mersey to the Trent. 
In many other parts of the country canals are now con- 
structed, and new ones are in progress, which are carried on 
with a promptitude, and even eagerness, of which only the 



336 COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 

public spirit and enterprising activity of the English nation 
can furnish an example. 

To facilitate the conveyance of coal, stones, and other 
heavy articles, from the pits or mines to the barges, iron 
railways are now formed, in preference to those of wood, 
which had been long in use. 

With regard to the general account of trade, the balance 
was in favour of England. When war arose between Great 
Britain and the revolutionary rulers of France, our imports 
were about twenty millions, and our exports, including foreign 
merchandise re-exported, approached the value of twenty- 
five millions; and during the course of the war they rose so 
high, as to amount in 1800 to thirty millions and a half 
imports, and forty-three millions of exports. This is to be 
understood of the official value, for the real marketable value 
was above fifty-five millions on the former head, and on the 
latter fifty-six. The greatest importation, in that year, except 
from the colonies, proceeded from Russia, and the most 
copious exportation was to Germany. In 1798 the prime 
minister calculated the profits on foreign trade to amount to 
twelve millions, and those of internal traffic and varied 
industry, to twenty-eight. 

The merchants' vessels belonging to the different ports of 
the British dominions, in 1792, amounted to somewhat more 
than sixteen thousand, the burthen of which was upwards 
of one million and a half of tons. In 1800, the number of 
vessels was nearly eighteen thousand, and the tons were 
estimated at nearly two millions. Of this number of vessels 
England fitted out two-thirds. The royal navy, which in 
1761 did not exceed three hundred and seventy-two vessels 
of all descriptions, amounted at this period, viz. 1800, to 
nine hundred and six, whereof one hundred and ninety-five 
were of the line. 

The principal manufacture of England is the wool trade. 
In making fine cloth of this description, no nation can excel 
the English ; but for the perfection of the manufacture, a 
certain mixture of Spanish wool is necessary. It is computed 
that the woollen goods annually made by the artizans and 
workmen of Great Britain produce, upon the average, more 
than fifteen millions sterling. The leather manufacture may 
be valued at eleven millions ; that of silk at two millions ; 
that of hemp at nearly the same. Fourteen millions form 
the estimated value of articles in iron, lead, tin, &c, and 



COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 337 

three and a half for those of copper and brass. In some of 
these branches of art the steam engine is employed, which 
machine was greatly improved by Messrs. Watts and Bolton, 
who added very considerably to its powers, and rendered it 
capable of turning mills, for a great variety of useful pur- 
poses. The demand for cotton goods becoming very great, 
various contrivances were devised for quickening the progress 
of spinning. Among the most successful, was one invented 
by Hargrave, a weaver in Lancashire, called a "Jenny," 
which, though rude in its original form, was soon greatly 
improved ; while its unfortunate contriver, harassed by per- 
secutions for having attempted to diminish the number of 
hands employed, died in poverty. Arkwright, who was at 
first merely a rustic barber, applied his mind to the subject, 
and procured a patent for spinning by means of rollers. His 
first mill was worked b}^ horses, his second by water. In 
consequence of his judicious contrivances, spinning and 
carding were performed with astonishing celerity. These 
discoveries occasioned the introduction of the calico and 
muslin manufactures ; and, from the extension of the trade 
(the result of the diminution of labour in each piece) a far 
greater number of hands are now employed than before the 
invention of those machines. The annual value of cotton 
goods, on an average, was computed in 1800 at nine millions 
and a half, since which time it has increased to upwards of 
thirty millions. 

For the improvement of porcelain and pottery we are 
indebted to Mr. Wedgewood, with whose well-manufactured 
ware not only Great Britain, but also several of the conti- 
nental nations are abundantly supplied. The manufacture 
of glass has been likewise much improved. Clocks and 
watches are constructed with greater neatness and precision. 
Astronomical instruments have received an accession of 
accuracy, and an extension of power, which render them 
superior to those of all other nations. In a word, every 
branch of mechanism connected with the arts and sciences 
are fabricated with increasing skill and elegance. 

During the reign of George IV. steps were taken for a 
more unshackled and liberal system in the trade of the 
country. The most important of these were, first, the repeal 
of what were called protecting duties between Britain and 
Ireland ; next, the alterations in the laws respecting the silk 
trade, which were introduced and carried by Mr. Huskisson, 

29 



338 COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, &c. 

although strenuously opposed by partial and short-sighted 
interest. Commercial treaties were also entered into with 
the Netherlands, Prussia, and Sweden. 

The joint-stock mania of the years 1824 and 1825, the 
general spirit of commercial speculations, an unfavourable 
turn in the exchanges, co-operated in producing great diffi- 
culties in the money market: a panic ensued, the failure of 
some London bankers produced a general crash among the 
country bankers, and an unprecedented crisis of ruin and 
distress ensued. Ministers, however, by giving permission 
to the Bank to make a temporary issue of bank-notes of one 
and two pounds, and an extraordinary number of sover- 
eigns from the Mint, relieved the trade and credit of the 
country. 

The distress, however, continued very great at the begin- 
ning of the year 1826. The workman was without employ, 
the tradesman without credit. Country banks and commer- 
cial failures continued. In the month of April a number of 
workmen assembled in various parts of Lancashire, partially 
armed, and committed dreadful havoc upon the power looms, 
but these excitements were, however, soon repressed. In 
order to restore credit, the Bank came to the resolution of 
lending three millions upon security, and sent commissioners 
into the chief trading towns for the purpose of arranging 
the advances. The knowledge that such loans were attain- 
able restored confidence, and the number applied for fell far 
short of the funds disposable for that purpose : so much is 
mercantile credit a creature of the imagination. 

Early in May, Mr. Canning introduced two measures into 
the House : the one for admitting bonded corn on paying a 
certain duty ; the other for giving to ministers the power of 
admitting foreign grain during the recess of Parliament. 
Both were carried after a strong opposition. This power was 
acted upon the ensuing September, on account of the unfa- 
vourable state of the harvest. 

In the following year Mr. Peel moved the appointment 
of the committee of finance, and introduced in his speech a 
comprehensive statement from which it appeared that a 
reduction of forty-eight millions and a half of the debt had 
been effected since 1815, and that the actual unredeemed 
debt was £777,476,000. 

The Duke of Wellington, now prime minister, introduced 
his measures upon the corn question. It differed materially 



LITERATURE AND ARTS. 33$ 

from Mr. Canning's bill. The medium price which Mr. 
Canning had taken at sixty, was raised by the Duke to 
between sixty-four and sixty-five. This bill was carried 
triumphantly through both Houses. 



CHAPTER V. 
Literature and Arts. 

As William III., the prime mover of the political machine 
of Europe, was too much embroiled during the whole of his 
reign to bestow much attention to polite literature, and as he 
was considered by nearly half the nation as only the head 
of a faction, many of the nobility and gentry kept at a dis- 
tance from court ; so that the advance of taste was very 
inconsiderable till the reign of Queen Anne, when the 
splendour of heroic actions induced all parties to celebrate 
the glory of their country. Then appeared a crowd of men 
of genius, — Newton, Swift, Addison, Congreve, Steele, 
Rowe, Cowley, Prior, Pope, Thomson, Cowper, Goldsmith, — 
most of whom not only enjoyed the friendship and familia- 
rity of the principal persons in power, but also obtained 
pensions and places in some of the less burthensome depart- 
ments of government ; which put it in their power to pass 
the remainder of their days in ease and independence. Since 
that period great progress has been made in useful science 
and polite literature. Black, Cavendish, Priestly, Nicholson, 
Kirwan, Thompson, and Davy, have thrown additional lustre 
over the study of chemistry, which has been enriched by 
their labours with innumerable discoveries. Astronomy has 
been cultivated with considerable ability, by Bradley, Mas- 
kelyne, Sir Henry Englefield, and particularly by Herschel, 
who extended the power of telescopes, discovered the Geor- 
gium Sidus, and added thousands of stars to the number 
previously known. 

The medical science and chiruBgical art are also in several 
respects better understood and practised than heretofore. 
One of the most beneficial discoveries of modern date in 
the healing art, is that of vaccination, or the applicability of 
the cow-pock to the gradual extermination of the small-pox, 
by Dr. Edward Jenner, who was rewarded by Parliament as 
tK benefactor of the whole human race. The vaccine; 



340 LITERATURE AND ARTS. 

inoculation thus recommended, has been introduced into 
most of the countries of Europe, and other parts of the 
world. 

During the presidency of Sir Joshua Reynolds over the 
Academy of Arts, founded by George III., were produced 
some able painters, sculptors, and architects. Among these 
may be reckoned West, who executed various historical sub- 
jects of considerable merit : such as the departure of Regu- 
lus, and the death of Wolfe ; Wright, a good landscape 
painter ; Gainsborough and Morland, who delineated scenes 
of rural life with ability ; Opie, a self-taught genius, pro- 
duced some interesting pieces; Hamilton depicted the 
female figure with elegance ; Mortimer and Barry shewed a 
spirited pencil ; Lawrence and Westall excelled in portraits ; 
Smirke in scenes of humour ; De Louth erbourg in sea- 
pieces ; Flaxman, Bacon, Nollekens, Westmacott, have great 
merit as sculptors. 

• Engraving, of which painting may be said to be the pro- 
totype, made also considerable progress in England during 
the last century. Historical pictures can only become the 
property of the rich, and are moreover liable to be injured 
greatly by time or accident. Hence the utility of engraving 
on plates of copper : it multiplies copies at a moderate 
price. 

Music has been much encouraged during the present 
reign. The grand concerts in the capital give ample scope 
to the native composers ; whilst the Opera House calls forth 
all the talents of foreign masters, as well as all the powers 
of execution, both vocal and instrumental, by the most 
liberal rewards, for the entertainment of the nobility and 
gentry. 

As to public declamation and true eloquence, no nation in 
the world can produce so many noble examples as the Eng- 
lish nation. Witness the fine speeches made in both houses 
of Parliament in the reign of Charles I. ; and in modern 
times, Pitt, Burke, Fox, and a crowd of others, who were 
long the delight and admiration of their auditors. 

With regard to agriculture, little interest had been shewn 
in the cultivation of the soil till the reign of his late Majesty 
George III., who being himself much delighted with agri- 
cultural pursuits, brought this valuable science into fashionable 
repute, and under his immediate patronage was established 
that great national institution, "The Board of Agriculture.'' 
Thus countenanced, noblemen, gentlemen, and other men 



MANNERS. 341 

of property and talent, made it their peculiar study, and 
spread their discoveries and inventions through the medium 
of the press. The consequence has been, that the soil has 
been improved, green crops rendered more abundant, and 
the fruits of the earth have acquired a superior degree of 
excellence, while the implements of husbandry have been 
increased and simplified. Botany also, by the patronage and 
attention of the late Princess Charlotte, as well as the Prin- 
cess Elizabeth, and other distinguished females, became 
fashionable, and was thus diffused more generally among 
other classes of the community. 

On the subject of education, the improvements in teaching 
the elementary principles deserve our admiration. When 
we reflect on the great advantages now possessed, particularly 
by the lower orders of society, in the amazing efforts that 
have been made to bestow upon them the benefit of a schol- 
astic education, the pleasing idea presents itself, that if ac- 
companied with well grounded religious principles, thousands 
of our fellow-beings, who, from their situations in life, would 
otherwise be exposed to the temptations of vice and idleness, 
will become patterns of virtue, and the ornament of their 
country. 

The art of poetry has, during this reign, been cultivated 
with great success. Among poets of pre-eminent rank may 
be classed Byron, Scott, Moore, Southey, Campbell, Words- 
worth. History also is not without its glory ; witness Lin- 
gard, Hallam, Turner, Mackintosh, and many others. 



CHAPTER VL 

Manners* 

During the course of the last century, the manners of the 
English underwent a considerable change. Many of their 
favourite diversions are now disused, and their ancient hos- 
pitality is neglected. Their present amusements are chiefly 
operas, concerts of music, dramatic exhibitions, and some- 
times masquerades in or near London ; but cards and danc- 
ing assemblies are common all over the kingdom. Their 
rural sports are stag and fox-hunting, coursing the hare, fishing, 
angling, and the athletic diversion of cricket. Horse-races 
are in high repute by persons of the highest rank. Ringing 
of bells is a species of music which the English boast of 

29* 



342 MANNERS. 

having carried to perfection. Tennis, bowls, billiards, skit- 
tles, quoits, are familiar to them. Goffis principally played 
by the Scotch; the diversion of hurling is also peculiar to 
the Scots. It is performed upon ice, with large flat stones, 
often from twenty to two hundred pounds each, which they 
hurl from a given place to a mark at a considerable distance ; 
and whoever is nearest to the mark wins the game. 

Two kinds of diversion, and those highly laudable, are 
peculiar to the English ; these are rowing and sailing. The 
latter was much patronized and encouraged by the father of 
George III., and may be considered as a national improve- 
ment. The game acts have taken from the common people 
a great fund of diversion, without answering the purpose of 
the great; for the farmers and country people destroy the 
game in nets, which they dare not kill with the gun. This 
monopoly of game, among so free a people as the Britons, 
has been often attacked, and as often defended. 

Music among the moderns was long only considered in 
our dramatic entertainments, as an occasional auxiliary. Our 
first successful musical piece, the celebrated Beggar's Opera 
of Gay, is said to have been written in ridicule of the Italian 
opera: though, if burlesque had been its chief object, he 
would have made Macheath, and all his gang, warble Italian 
airs, instead of adapting the words of his songs to native 
tunes. A new species of musical drama was brought on 
the English stage by the immortal Handel, to which he gave 
the name of Oratorio, and in which he exerted all his powers 
of combining harmony, to the delight and astonishment of 
the whole musical world. 

With regard to genius, the English are remarkable for their 
mechanical and philosophical inventions to shorten and facil- 
itate labour : by which means, notwithstanding the immense 
taxes they pay towards the support of the Government, and 
the consequent high price of every article of necessity or 
luxury, they are enabled to send manufactures of superior 
workmanship to all parts of the world. The amazing increase 
of territory, as well as commercial property, in the East- 
Indies, has introduced into this country a species of people, 
who have become rich without industry, and by diminishing 
the value of gold and silver, have created a new system of 
finance. This has occasioned a spirit of luxury and gaming,, 
attended with very fatal effects. 

The plain frugal manners of men of business, which pre- 
vailed even as lately as the accession of the present family to. 



aian.nk:- 343 

the throne, are now disregarded for extravagancies in dress and 
equipage, and the most expensive amusements, not only in 
the capital, but in every part of the kingdom; although the 
generality of the English people still love rather to be neat 
than fine in their apparel ; and the appearance of an artisan 
or manufacturer on holidays is commonly an indication of 
his industry. 

The Highlanders of Scotland wear a plaid composed of 
woollen stuff called tartan. Above the shirt they wear a 
piece of the same, consisting of about twelve yards, which 
they throw over the shoulder, into nearly the form of a 
Roman toga. Sometimes it is fastened round the middle 
with a belt, so that part of the plaid hangs down before and 
behind, and supplies the want of breeches. This they call 
being dressed in a phelig, which the Lowlanders call a kilt, 
and which is probably the same word as Celt. Sometimes 
they wear a kind of petticoat of the same stuff buckled round 
the waist, and this they term philebeg. Their stockings are 
likewise of tartan, tied below the knees with tartan garters, 
formed into tassels. The poorer people wear upon their feet 
brogues made of undressed leather; for their heads they use 
a blue flat cap of a peculiar woollen manufacture. From 
the philibeg hung generally their knives, and a dagger, which 
they called a dirk, and an iron pistol, sometimes of fine work- 
manship, and inlaid with silver. A large leathern purse, 
richly adorned with silver, hanging before them, was always 
part of a Highland chieftain's dress. The attachment of the 
Highlanders to this dress rendered it a bond of union, which 
often proved dangerous to the Government ; and it was not 
till their overthrow at Culloden, that the Legislature succeed- 
ed in forcing them to a total change in their dress. Its con- 
veniency, however, for the purposes of the field is so great, 
that the Highland regiments still retain it. Even the common 
people have of late resumed it, and many of the Highland 
gentlemen wear it in the summer time. 



( 345 ) 
QUESTIONS. 



BOOK I. 

Whence is the origin of the Britons ? 
What arms did they use in war ? 



Who first invaded them ? 

Relate their manner of fighting. 

Name the most renowned British warriors. 

Also, the Roman commanders who fought in Britain. 

What British Queen poisoned herself to avoid the insults 
of the Romans ? 

Relate the speech of Caractacus before the Emperor Clau- 
dius. 

, Who finally established the Roman power in this island, 
'and at what time did it take place ? 

How long did the Romans remain ? 

Who were the Saxons ? 

What British king called them over, and for what reason ? 

What two Saxon chiefs landed in Britain ? 



What was the religion of the Britons ? 

Who were the Druids ? 

What did they teach ? 

What kind of temples had they ? 

Did they sacrifice human victims ? 

When was Christianity introduced into Britain, and by 
whom? 

Who was the first Christian king in Europe ? 

Under what Emperor was the first persecution of the Chris- 
tians in Britain ? 

Who was the first martyr in Britain ? 

Who was Pelagius ? 

Who were sent to oppose his errors ? 

What was the form of government ? 

What the population and features of the country? 

What does Tacitus say of the Britons ? 

What possessions had they ? 

Mention some of their laws. 

Relate the law of inheritance. 



346 QUESTIONS. 

Had they any commerce, and with whom ? 
What did they export and import ? 
Relate the lines of Ossian upon the dogs of Britain. 
Was London built at this time ? 

How many vessels were then employed in the export of 
corn ? 

For what were the Britons remarkable ? 

What is the testimony of Julius Agricola concerning them ? 

What is the character given of them by Tacitus ? 

Relate the management of their children. 

Were they hospitable ? 

How did they exercise hospitality ? 

How did they behave towards their parents and superiors ? 

What was their dress? 

Of what was their meals composed, and how many had 
they in the day? 

In what manner did they conduct themselves during their 
repasts ? % 

Relate their mode of burial. 



BOOK II. 

Name the principal Saxon chiefs. 

Relate the massacre of the British nobles, and by whom it 
was perpetrated. 

What is said of King Arthur ? 

When was the kingdom of the East Angles founded ? 

When the kingdom of Mercia ? 

What was the Heptarchy ; who established it ? 

Who was Ina ? 

When did the Danes invade England ? 

Who was Egbert ? 

Who succeeded him ? 

What was the character Ethel wulf ? 

Name the Saxon kings from Egbert. 

Which was the greatest king among the Saxons ? 

Relate the most remarkable events in the reign of Alfred 
the Great. 

What remarkable event happened in the reign of Athel- 
stan? 

Against whom did Athelstan wage war ? 

Who succeeded him ? 



QUESTIONS. 347 

What is the character of Edmund, and what catastrophe 
happened to him ? 

What is the character of Edred ? 

What is the character of Edwy ? 

Who was Ethelgiva, and what happened to her ? 

W T hat is the character of Edgar, and who was his chief 
adviser ? 

What is remarkable in his reign ? 

Who was Elfrida? 

Relate the character of Edward the Martyr, and his death. 

What is the character of Ethelred, and who invaded Eng- 
land in his reign ? 

What was his conduct upon their invasion ? 

When did Edmund Ironside begin his reign? — tell the 
cause of his death. 

Who first conceived the design of converting the English 
Saxons ? 

What was the remarkable speech of Pope Gregory, upon 
seeing the Saxon slaves at Rome ? 

Who was the Apostle of England, and where was the 
Gospel first preached in England ? 

Relate the history of Edwin's conversion. 

Who was Aiden, and what nation did he convert ? 

Who converted the Mercians ? 

Which was the last kingdom converted to Christianity? 

Into how many archbishoprics did St. Austin divide the 
kingdom, and which were they ? 

How many suffragan bishops were there ? 

By whom were the dioceses distributed into parishes ? 

By what title had the laity the right of Patronage ? 

Of what did the revenues of the Church consist ? 

How were they divided and applied ? 



Who were the learned men among the Saxons? 
Which were their principal studies ? 
What was the state of literature at the accession of Alfred 
the Great ? 

By whom were the remains of literature preserved ? 

Name their libraries, and by whom established. 

How did Alfred the Great divide his time and studies? 



Had the Saxons a national assembly ? what was it called ? 

Who were its constituents ? 

What titles of dignity had their nobles ? 



348 QUESTIONS. 

Of what nature were their proceedings in civil cases ? 
What was the process in criminal affairs ? 
What was the purgation by swearing? What the ordeal ? 
Had the Saxons any slaves ? What were they called ? 
What was the value of land, and how were rents paid ? 
What were the exports, and which their trading towns ? 
What were their principal coins ? 



What was the state of agriculture ? 
By whom was masonry introduced into Britain ? 
What were the personal qualities of the Anglo-Saxons ? 
Relate some of their customs. 
How did they educate their children ? 
What was their peculiar custom to ascertain the courage 
of their offspring. 

How did they conduct their burials ? 
What is said of their language ? 



BOOK III. 

Who was the first Danish King of England ? 

How many sons had Canute, and which succeeded him ? 

Who was Emma ? 

What act of treachery did Harold commit ? 

Who succeeded Harold, and what is the character of his 
successor ? 

Who succeeded Hardicanute ? 

What is the character of Edward the Confessor? 

Who attempted the invasion of England during his reign ? 

Who were his chief generals ? 

Whom did he marry, and what is remarkable in their 
union ? 

Relate the remarkable death of Earl Godwin. 

Against whom did he wage war, and what was the success 
of it ? 

What was the speech of Siward upon the death of his son ? 

How long did Edward the Confessor reign ? 

Who succeeded him ? 

Who invaded England during the reign of Harold ? 

Relate the principal circumstances of the battle which 
decided the fate of the nation. 

To what may we trace the causes of the conquest? 



QUESTIONS. 349 

What acts of piety did Canute perform ? 
Who rebuilt the cathedral of Westminster ? 
What kings published laws for the government of the nation, 
and in what did they chiefly consist ? 

When were trials by ordeal legally prohibited ? 
What is the character of the Danes ? 



BOOK IV. 

Where was William the Conqueror crowned ? 

What oath did he take at his coronation ? 

How did be conduct himself at the beginning of his reign? 

Did the English attempt to recover their independence ? 

Who was Edgar Atheling, and what became of him and 
his sister Margaret ? 

What acts of cruelty did William commit? 

What was the language used at court in his reign ? 

Did he pass the remainder of his life happily ? 

How many sons had he, and their names ? 

Relate their characters, and how they agreed ? 

Relate what happened in the battle between Robert and 
his father, and also the manner of William's death. 

Mention who succeeded him, and his conduct. 

What is the character of William the Conqueror ? 

What happened at the siege of the fortress defended by 
Henry ? 

Relate the speech of Robert, upon Henry's demand of 
water. 

What were the crusades, and what gave, rise to them ? 

Relate the circumstances of William the Second's death. 

Who succeeded him, and how did he commence his reign ? 

What lady did he marry? What became of Robert? 

What misfortune happened to Henry ? 

What was the immediate cause of his death? 

How long did he reign, and who succeeded him? 

Who was Matilda, and how did she govern ? 

How did the dispute of Stephen and Henry terminate ? 

When did Stephen die, and who succeeded him ? 



What was the policy of William the Conqueror with 
regard to ecclesiastical matters ? 

Who was Lanfranc, and what is his character ? 
30 



350 QUESTIONS. 

How did William II. behave in church matters ? 
What did he do when attacked by sickness ? 
Who was St. Anselm, and how did William treat him ? 
What was Henry I.'s conduct in religious affairs ? 
How did Stephen conduct himself? 



What was the foundation of the Norman laws? 

What were the principles of the feudal law ? 

What were the chief branches of the royal revenue? 

What is the book called Doomsday ? 

What was the commerce of England at this period ? 

Which were the principal trading cities ? 

What was the state of agriculture ? 

What was their architecture and other fine arts ? 

What was the mode of education among the nobles ? 

What was the character of the Normans ? 

How many daily meals did they take, and at what hours ? 



BOOK V. 

What were the first acts of Henry II.'s reign ? 
With whom did he make war ? 
Relate some particulars of the invasion of Ireland. 
How many sons had he ? 
Relate the manner of his death. 
Who succeeded him ? 
What wars did Richard undertake ? 
Relate his warlike actions in the crusade. 
What misfortune befel him on his return ? 
What wars did he undertake afterwards ? 
Relate the circumstances of his death. 
What is the character of Richard ? 

Who succeeded him ? And what wars did John engage in ? 
What particular charter did he grant ? 
What was the cause of his death, and who succeeded him ? 
How long did Henry III. reign, and what is his character ? 
At what age was he proclaimed King? 
What confederacy was formed in his reign ? 
Who opposed the proceedings of the Barons ? 
What battle ensued, and who were the principal com- 
manders ? 

What happened to King Henry in the battle ? 



QUESTIONS. 351 

Who succeeded Henry III. ? 

Against whom did Edward I. make war ? 

Who was Llewellyn, and what happened to him ? 

Against what power did Edward next wage war? 

Who was Wallace, and what became of him? 

What is the character of Edward I., and who succeeded 
him? 

What is the character of Edward II. ? 

What favourites had he, and what became of them ? 

Relate the manner of Edward II. 's death. 

Who succeeded him, and at what age did he become king ? 

What were his first acts on ascending the throne ? 

What remarkable battles did he gain ? 

Relate the particulars of the battle of Cressy. 

Who was Philippa, and what remarkable actions did she 
perform ? 

What is the character of Edward the B'ack Prince ? 

Who succeeded Edward III. ? 

What insurrection happened in the reign of Richard ? 

Who was the leader of the rebels, and what became of him ? 

What was the King's conduct toward the mutineers ? 

What misfortune befel Richard, and what was the cause 
of his death ? 



Give some account of St. Thomas-a-Becket's family ; his 
character, dignities, and the causes of the persecutions he 
met with ; also the manner of his death. 

What was Henry's conduct upon the news of his death ? 

What disputes arose between John and the Pope ? 

What treaty did John make with the Pope ? 

What were the grievances of the English church at this 
period ? 

What bishops opposed the court of Rome in these pro- 
ceedings ? 

What religious order began to be established at this time ? 

What order was abolished, and w T hat statute made upon 
that occasion ? 

What is the substance of the letter addressed to the Pope 
by Edward I. ? 

Of what did the papal revenues in England consist ? 

What was the determination of the Parliament upon them ? 

Give some account of John WyclifFe and his doctrine. 

What were his followers called ? 



352 QUESTIONS. 

What particular laws were made in the reign of Henry II. ? 
What king was called the English Justinian? 
What renders this period particularly interesting ? 
What was the statute of Mortmain ? 

What was the conduct of the House of Commons under 
Edward II. and Edward III. ? 



What was the principal manufacture at this time ? 
How was our domestic trade carried on at this period ? 
What was the coin in the reign of Edward III. ? 
What was the state of the police ? 
What progress was made in the arts at this time ? 
What was the style of architecture and painting ? 



Give some account of the pomp and hospitality of this 
period. 

What were the preparations before knighthood ? 

What were tournaments ? 

Who founded the Order of the Garter, and who was the 
first knight ? 

What was the dress of the ladies and gentlemen of this 
period ? 

What was the language of this era ? 

What poets flourished at this time ? 

Relate incidents and curious particulars. 



BOOK VI. 

Who succeeded Richard II. ? 

In what wars did Henry IV. engage ? 

What was the occasion of Hotspur's rebellion ? 

What was the event of the battle ? 

How did Northumberland act after the death of his son ? 

What is the character of Henry IV., and who succeeded 
him? 

What children did he leave ? 

What w r as the conduct of Henry V. when Prince of Wales ? 

What was his conduct after his accession ? 

What remarkable submission to the laws did he shew 
before his father's death ? 

Against whom did he make war, and with what success ? 

Whom did he marry, and what is his general character \ 



QUESTIONS. 353 

Who was Sir Owen Tudor ? 
Who succeeded Henry V. ? 
What wars happened during his reign? 
Who was the maid of Orlearfs ? 
What victories did she gain, and what befel her? 
What is the character of Henry VI. ? 
To whom was he married ? 
What is the character of Margaret his queen ? 
What became of the king's uncle, Gloucester r 
Who was Jack Cade, and what happened to him ? 
What battles occurred between the Houses of York and 
Lancaster during this reign, and what was the final result ? 
What became of Margaret, and her son and husband ? 



What act was passed for the punishment of heretics under 
Henry IV. ? 

Who was the first victim ? 

Who was Sir John Oldcastle, and what happened to him ? 

How did Henry V. conduct himself in ecclesiastical 
affairs ? 



What was said of the constitution of England by Philip 
de Comines at this period ? 

Relate some particulars of the House of Commons at this 
period. 

How was the foreign trade conducted at this period? 

What were the coins of this period ? 

What was the style of architecture ? 

Who was the first English printer? 

What is remarkable in the manners of this time ? 

What were their number of meals, and the hours of 
taking them ? 



BOOK VII. 

How long did Edward IV. reign ? 

Who was the Duke of Clarence, and how did Edward act 
towards him ? 

Against whom did Edward make war, and with what 
success ? 

Who succeeded him, and how many children had he? 

Who was the Duke of Gloucester, and what was his con- 
duct towards his nephews ? 

30* 



354 QUESTIONS. 

What insurrections happened during the reign of Richard 

Relate the result of the battle between him and the Earl 
of Richmond. 

When did Henry VII. begin his reign, and how long did 
he sit on the throne ? 

What insurrections happened during his reign ? 

Who was Lambert Simnel, and what became of him ? 

Who was Perkin Warbeck, and whom did he marry ? 

What sons and daughters had Henry VII., and whom did 
they marry ? 

What was Henry the Eighth's character at his accession ? 

Against what powers did Henry make war? 

Relate the causes of Henry's divorce from his wife. 

How many wives had he, and what are their names ? 

Relate their deaths, and for what causes. 

What children did Henry leave, and who succeeded him ? 

Who were Cardinal Wolsey and Cranmer? 

How old was Edward VI. when he succeeded to the 
throne ? 

Who were the Duke of Somerset and Lady Jane Grey ? 

At what age did Edward die, and in what manner ? 

Who ascended the throne after Edward VI. ? 

What became of Northumberland, Lady Jane, and her 
husband? 

Relate Northumberland's speech at the place of execution. 

Whom did Mary marry, and what attempts were made 
against her crown, and by whom ? 

What remarkable city was lost in her reign, and what did 
the Queen say upon hearing the news ? 

What is the character of Mary, and when did she die ? 

Relate what Camden, Echard, and Fuller say of her. 

Who succeeded her, and in what year ? 

Relate some particulars of Mary Queen of Scots. 

Who put her to death, and on what pretence ? 

What was said by the Earl of Kent, upon her refusal to 
listen to the Dean of Peterborough ? 

How did Elizabeth receive the news of her death ? 

"Who made war upon Elizabeth, and what was the issue ? 

How did the Catholics behave during the war? 

How did the ministers of Elizabeth treat the Catholics of 
this kingdom ? 

Who were the favourites of Elizabeth? 

Relate the manner of the death of Essex. 



QUESTIOKS. 355 

What says Camden of Mary Queen of Scots ? 
Relate the particulars of the death of Elizabeth. 

What were the ecclesiastical affairs during the reign of 
Henry VII.? 

What were the principal causes of the separation of the 
English Church from the See of Rome ? 

Who were the principal contrivers, and in what manner 
did they conduct themselves ? 

Upon what pretence did Henry VIII. seize upon the abbies 
and monasteries ? 

What was the consequence of the dissolution of the mon- 
asteries, &c. ? 

What passed during the minority and reign of Edward 
VI.? 

How did Mary act in ecclesiastical affairs ? 

Relate the circumstances of the death of Cranmer. 

Were there many discontented with her, and upon what 
grounds ? 

What were the arguments made use of by the Reformers 
to induce Elizabeth to establish the Reformation ? 

What title did she assume ? 

What were the principal alterations made in the Liturgy, 
and who made them ? 

What was the speech of the Bishop of Chichester upon 
the occasion ? 

Who among the Bishops took the oath of supremacy ? 

What punishments were inflicted upon those who refused 
to take it ? 



What were the treasurer left by Henry VII. ? 

How were the laws executed at this period ? 

What inquisitorial tribunals were there in the reign of 
Elizabeth ? 

How many Catholics suffered death for their religion only, 
during her reign ? 



What was the literature of this period? 
Who were the principal learned men of this time ? 
What w r as the state of agriculture and gardening ? 
What was the style of architecture, of painting, and poetry ? 
What remarkable geographical discovery was made in this 
period ? 

What was the state of the coin and manufactures ? 

i 






356 QUESTIONS. 

Who built the Royal Exchange, and in whose reign was 
it built? 

What was the state of the navy ? 

In what year was the East-India Company established ? 

What are the manners and dress of this period ? 

When was tobacco introduced, and by whom ? 

Who succeeded Elizabeth, and at what period? 

What plot was carried on in the beginning of this reign ? 

Who were the principal persons concerned in it ? 

Relate some particulars of the gunpowder plot. 

By whom was this plot supposed to have been secretly 
fomented, and for what purpose ? 

Mention the names of some of the conspirators ? 

Had James any favourites ? — who were they ? 

Relate some particulars of Sir Walter Raleigh. 

What sons had James, and who did Charles marry ? 

What war did James undertake, and what was the result? 

How long did James reign, and of what did he die ? 

Who succeeded him, and in what year? 

Who was Buckingham, and what happened to him ? 

What was the state of the nation at Charles's accession ? 

Against whom did he make war ? 

How did the House of Commons proceed at this time? 

Who resisted the payment of ship-money? 

What caused the Scotch to have recourse to arms? 

Relate some particulars of the Earl of Strafford, and his 
death. 

Mention the immediate cause of the civil war. 

Where was the first battle fought, and what were the 
results ? 

What was the name given to the army of Charles, and 
why? 

Where was the next battle fought, and what its result ? 

What battle decided the fate of Charles ? 

What step did Charles take upon the loss of this battle ? 

What did the Scotch do in consequence ? 

Who was Cromwell, and what was the parliament called 
which he established, and how did it proceed ? 

Relate some particulars of Charles's trial, also his conduct 
after Ihe sentence had been passed upon him, and his death. 

What followed? 

What was Cromwell's conduct in Ireland ? 

How did Charles II. act? 

Relate some particulars of the battle of Worcester. 



QUESTIONS. 357 

Against whom did the commonwealth make war? 

Relate the dissolution of the long Parliament 

How was the next Parliament constituted ? 

What title did Cromwell assume ? 

Against what powers did Cromwell make war ? 

Who was the principal person that procured the restora- 
tion of Charles II. ? 

How did he begin his reign, and what is his character ? 

In what war did he engage ? 

In what year was the plague, and how many died of it ' 

What calamity happened the year after, and to whom w 
the misfortune falsely attributed ? 

Relate some particulars of the Scotch rebellion. 

What pretended plots were charged upon the Catholics 
during Charles II. 's reign, and who was the chief contriver? 

What became of Titus Oates ? 

Of what did Charles II. die, and what clergyman did he 
send for on his death-bed ? 

Tell the result of Monmouth's rebellion, and w r ho he was 
who succeeded Charles II. 

What was the cause of the misunderstanding between 
James and his Parliament? 

Who invaded England, and how did James act? 

What took place upon the flight of James ? 

What is the character of James II., and when did he die ? 



How did the ministers of James I. act towards the Catho- 
lics ? 

What is the Gunpowder Plot ? 

What calumnies were invented against the Catholics ? 

What was the situation of the Catholics among them- 
selves? 

Who was the last national bishop, and who the first arch- 
priest ? 

Until what year did the English mission continue under 
the government of an archpriest ? 

Who was the first vicar apostolic ? 

What statutes against the Catholics, and their seminaries 
abroad, passed in the reign of James I. ? 

What was the condition of the Catholics under Cromwell ? 

At the restoration, what was the state of the beneficed 
clergy, as mentioned by Echard ? 

Relate some particulars of Oates' s plot. 

What was the main design of the plotters ? 



358 QUESTIONS. 

What persons were executed for this pretended plot ? 
What penal acts passed during the reign of Charles II. ? 
What was James II.'s conduct in religious affairs ? 



In what reign were triennial Parliaments and the Habeas 
Corpus act established ? 

When were the North American colonies planted ? 

In what reign were copper halfpence and farthings coined ? 

Who were the learned men at this period? 

What was the state of agriculture ? 

Who were the most eminent painters, architects, and 
poets ? 

What was the state of manners during the reigns of James 
I., Charles I., and Charles II. ? 

When were barometers, thermometers, and microscopes 
invented, also logarithms, and by whom ? 

When was the General Post-office established ? 



BOOK IX. 

Upon William's accession, how did James act ? 

Where did he land, and what siege did he undertake ? 

How did William's troops act at Carrickfergus ? 

Where was the great battle fought between James and 
William ? 

Relate the events of the battle, and James's exclamation. 

Whose generals were the Duke of Schomberg and St. Ruth ? 

Who was Ginkle, and what battle did he gain ? 

What were the conditions granted at the surrender of 
Limerick ? 

What was the conduct of William's troops in Scotland ? 

Relate some particulars of the battle of La Hogue. 

What was James's exclamation during the battle ? 

Upon the conclusion of the war, how did the Commons act? 

When did William die, and who succeeded him ? 

Against what power did the Queen make war? 

Who was her general? Relate some of his military actions. 

What French Marshals opposed him? Was he ever 
defeated ? 

Relate some particulars of the battle of Blenheim. 

What caused peace to be made amidst these brilliant 
victories ? 



QUESTIONS. 359 

What great event of internal policy took place in this 
reign ? 

What does the history of the latter part of Anne's reign 
chiefly contain, when did she die, and who succeeded her? 

What rebellion took place in the reign of George I. ; from 
what causes, and what were the results ? 

What epithet was given to the son of James II. ? 

What noblemen were executed for this rebellion ? 

What happened to Lord Nilhisdale ? 

Relate particulars of the Quadruple Alliance. 

What war ensued, and what its results ? 

Relate some particulars of the South Sea scheme. 

Of what disorder did George I. die, and who succeeded 
him ? 

What war was declared in this reign? 

Relate some particulars of its origin. 

Relate the attempt of the son of the Pretender, the battle 
that followed, and the behaviour of the conquerors. 

What became of the young Pretender? 

When did the Prince of Wales, son of George II. die ? 

Upon what account was Admiral Byng shot ? 

Mention some of the transactions in the East-Indies. 

How was the war carried on in America? 

Mention some particulars of the taking of Quebec ; also 
of the war in Germany. 

Describe some of the great efforts made by England. 

When did Geore II. die, and who succeeded him ? 

Give a summary account of the advantage gained by Eng- 
land in this war. 

At the conclusion of this war, what was the amount of the 
national debt ? 

What caused the separation of the American colonies ? 

Name the principal British commanders in the American 
war, and also the American. 

Mention some of the most remarkable battles. 

What was the conduct of France and Spain at this time ? 

How did the nation manifest itself upon the declaration of ' 
war with France and Spain ? 

Who were the French admirals and generals? 

What victories were gained over the French and Spaniards 
at sea ? 

Relate the action between Rodney and De Grasse'. 

What memorable siege was undertaken by the Spaniards ? 

Relate the principal events of that siege. 



360 QUES110NS. 

How did the French behave at the Congress r 

Relate the state of the nation at the close of this war. 

Who was Tippoo Saib ? describe the war against him. 

What were the principal causes of the revolution which 
broke out in Fiance ? 

What were the ostensible grounds of quarrel between 
Great Britain and the revolutionists of France ? 

Give an account of the engagement on the 1st of June 
1794; also the battles of Cape St. Vincent and Camperdown. 

State the result of the invasion of Ireland in 1797. 

Who gained the battle of the Nile ? 

Tell the result of the invasion of Holland by the Duke of 
York ; also the success of the British arms in the East and 
West-Indies. 

In what manner did Buonaparte act after the defeat of his 
fleet near the Nile ? 

Who defended Acre, and with what success ? 

What became of Buonaparte ? 

Why did the English attack Copenhagen, who command- 
ed the attack, and what were its consequences ? 

Who commanded the English at the battle of Alexandria, 
and what were its results ? 

When and where was the general peace signed ? 

What was the cause of its being so soon broken ? 

How did the war commence in the West- Indies ? 

Relate some particulars of the war in the East-Indies. 

Relate the events of the campaign of 1805. 

When was the memorable battle of Trafalgar fought ? 

Relate some particulars of it, and its effects. 

Mention particulars of the battle of Maida. 

Give an account of the success of the British troops in 
Portugal, and who commanded them. 

Mention particulars of the English troops in Spain. 

Relate the account of the battle of Talavera. 

What was the success in Germany? 

What expedition was sent to the Scheldt, and what were 
its results ? 

What were the general features of the campaigns of 1810 
and 1811 in Portugal and Spain ? 

What brilliant affair took place in the East-Indies ? 

Mention some particulars of the campaign of 1812 in Port- 
ugal and Spain. 

With what power was war commenced in 1812? 

What were the general results of this war ? 



QUESTIONS. 361 

Mention some particulars of the campaign in Russia in 
1812, also of the advance of the Allies in Germany in 1813, 
and the battles of the English in Spain. 

Relate particulars of the battle of Leipsic. 

Give an account of the campaign in America. 

What action at sea way fought, and the names of the Cap- 
tains r 

Give, particulars of the .campaign of 1814, both in the 
north of France and in the south. 

When did Paris capitulate, what treaty was made with 
Buonaparte, and to what island did he retire ? 

Where was the last battle fought by the English in France ? 

When did the King of France quit England to ascend the 
throne, and what were the principal articles of the treaty of 
peace made with him ? 

Mention the particulars of the war in America. 

Did Buonaparte observe the treaty made with him ? 

Mention some of the principal events of the year 1815. 

When did the battle of Waterloo commence ? 

Mention some particulars of it. 

What was the loss of the Allies, and also of the French ? 

What consequences followed from it ? 

What became of Buonaparte, and also of Murat? 

What capture was made from the Americans? 

Mention the particulars of the war in India. 

When was the treaty of peace signed between the Allied 
Powers and France, and on what articles ? 

Against whom did England send a fleet, and what are the 
particulars of the engagement? 

When did George III. die, and how long did he reign ? 

How were Catholics treated in King William's reign ? 

What bill was enacted against them ? 

Mention some particulars during the reigns of Queen 
Anne, George I., and George II. 

What was their situation at the beginning of the reign of 
George III. ? 

What resulted from the bill passed in favour of the Catho- 
lics in 1778? 

Mention particulars of the riot in Scotland. 

What riots took place in 1780, and where? 

Who was at the head of the rioters ? 

Mention particulars of their conduct on 2d of June. 

What destruction did they cause ? 
31 



QUESTIONS. 

How did the Catholics proceed after the riots ? 

What memorial was delivered by them to Mr. Pitt ? 

State the substance of their grievances. 

What is the substance of the questions submitted to the 
foreign Catholic universities, by the direction of Mr. Pitt, 
and their answers ? 

What were the subsequent proceedings of the Committee ? 

How did the vicars apostolic proceed on this occasion ? 

What is the substance of their encyclical letter? 

Who were the Vicars Apostolic at this period? 

What was the success of the oath in the Parliament ? 

What were the proceedings in Ireland ? 

What were the proceedings in England in 1808 ? 

What act passed in 1817, in favour of the Catholics ? 

Who was Sir Robert Walpole, and who was prime minis- 
ter at the death of George II. ? 

What were the acts of Government at the commencement 
of the reign of George III. ? 

Mention some particulars of Mr. Wilkes. 

What is the substance of the Bill brought into Parliament 
in 1772, on the marriages of the King's brothers? 

What alteration was made in the criminal law in the 
session of 1772? 

In what year was the coalition ministry formed, and who 
were the principal leaders ? 

Who succeeded to the ministry on the dissolution of the 
above ? 

What remarkable financial measure took place in 1786? 

In what year was the act to abolish the Slave Trade passed? 

When was the Prince of Wales married, and to whom ? 

When did the union with Ireland take place ? 

What is remarkable in the year 1806 ? 

When was the Prince of Wales made Regent ? 
« When and in what manner was the administration deprived 
of Mr. Percival, and who was he ? 

Who constituted the principal members of the new min- 
istry ? 

What was the state of the internal affairs at this time, and 
what act passed to repress tumults ? 

Mention some particulars of the Princess of Wales in 1814 ? 

What was the expenditure of the kingdom in 1814? 

What happened to the Princess Charlotte ? 

When did Queen Charlotte, consort of George III., die ? 



QUESTIONS. 363 

What internal commotions happened in 1819 ? 
Mention some particulars of the meeting at Manchester. 
What acts were passed in consequence of the disturbances ? 

Relate particulars of our trade with America. 

What are the exports and imports to and from India ? 
Also exports and imports of Africa? 

With what nation is the balance against us ? 

With what countries is it in our favour? 

What was the amount of our imports in the year 1800 ? j 

What were the exports, and the greatest number of mer- 
chant vessels employed in the years 1792 and 1800 ? 

What was the amount of the royal navy in 1800 ? 

Which are the principal manufactures of England ? 

What was the annual value of cotton goods in 1800 ? 



What are the present manners and pastimes of the English ? 
What is their character with regard to dress ? 
What peculiar dress do the Highlanders wear ? 

When did George IV. ascend the throne ? 

What occurred at Sierra Leone shortly after ? 

Where do the Burmese inhabit ? 

What happened there ? 

What was the conduct of England upon the invasion of 
Spain by the French ? 

Relate some particulars of the affairs of Portugal at this 
time. 

Relate the affairs of Greece. 

What battle was fought, and where ? 

Who commanded the allied squadrons ? 

When did the Duke of York die ? 

What was the immediate cause of George IV.'s death ? 

When did he die ? 



What affairs principally occupied parliament during its 
first session under George IV. ? 

Relate some of the passing events in Ireland as to the 
Association, and who was their leader. 

Who moved the consideration of the sacramental test, and 
what was the success of the motion ? 

What were the means taken to promote what was called 
the second reformation in Ireland ? 

Relate particulars of the election for Clare. 



364 QUESTIONS. 

Who was elected ? — who thrown out ? 

jRelate the effect of agitation in Ireland. 

What members of the Association particularly distin- 
guished themselves? 

Relate Mr. Shiel's description of the state of Ireland. 

What passed relative to Emancipation in the year 1829? 

Relate the Duke of Wellington's speech in support of 
Emancipation. 

Who were the principal opposers in the House of Lords ? 

Describe what passed in the Commons when Mr. O'Con- 
nell attempted to take his seat for Clare. 

Mention some particulars of the conspiracy at the begin- 
ning of the reign of George IV. 

Relate some of the occurrences occasioned by the return 
of Queen Caroline. 

When did the Queen die, and what epitaph did she direct 
to be placed on her coffin ? 

Relate the particulars of her. funeral. 

How was the King received in Ireland ? 

What other country did the King visit ? 

What dreadful scourge afflicted Ireland, and how did the 
British nation behave on the occasion ? 

Where did the King go after the session of 1822? 

What event interrupted the festivities in Scotland r 

Who succeeded the Marquis of Londonderry ? 

Who became prime minister in 1827, and died. a few 
months after ? 

Who succeeded Mr. Canning ? 

Who succeeded Lord Goderich ? 



"What steps were taken to promote commerce and manu- 
factures during the reign of George IV. ? 

Relate some particulars of the joint-stock mania. 

What riot took place in consequence of commercial dis- 
tress ? 

What is the actual state of the public debt at this time ? 

What is the state of agriculture at present, and who intro- 
duced a taste for it among the nobility and gentry ? 

Mention some of the poets and historians of the present age. 



LRB" 






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